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ROHIT SHARMA

One of the more frequent means by which customers are defrauded is by cheque interception. On average, a cheque is handled by up to 20 people from the time you make it out to the time your branch pays it. This means that there are numerous opportunities for the cheque to be intercepted. Most commonly this happens when cheques are posted.

Another common way in which customers are defrauded is in accepting a cheque or bank deposit when selling goods. Often the cheque or the deposit turns out to be fraudulent and the seller is out of pocket. Sellers are advised never to release goods until they are certain that the payment is valid.

Always wait for the funds to be cleared before releasing goods, even if it seems to be a bank issued cheque. While the cheque may appear to be genuine, fraudsters have even gone so far as to print their own cheques. The cheque could also be stolen. Even if the cheque is genuine, there are certain circumstances when bank issued cheques will not be honoured.

A fake cheques scam estimated to the tune of Rs.52 crore has been unearthed in the State Bank of India’s (SBI) main branch in kanpur. Seven bank officers have been suspended, According to the official, the fraud, which was detected Tuesday evening, was being carried on with the active connivance of the branch officials. Most of the fake cheques were credited into the account of an influential petrol pump owner and one of his associates, who have reportedly fled the country.

“The suspended officials include an assistant general manager, two chief managers and some senior managers, who were suspected to be directly involved in pilfering the bank by crediting fake cheques into select accounts,” he said.

The Kanpur branch head and deputy general manager have been divested of the charge with immediate effect.

The scam was detected by SBI’s audit team in Hyderabad from which a special team had been sent here to this city, 80 km from state capital Lucknow.

A vigilance team from the Lucknow-based state head office was also sent to Kanpur.

While describing the case as the “biggest fraud in the Lucknow-Kanpur region in recent decades”, the bank official did not rule out the possibility of “more heads rolling” over the next few days.

Significantly, barely a few months back, a fake note racket involving SBI officials was discovered in a small SBI branch in Domariyaganj town on the India-Nepal border, about 200 km from Lucknow.

ATM fraud issues in the most part involve credit card fraud and debit card fraud. The ATM machine may be the ‘common purchase point’ (CPP) where analysis shows that a significant number of credit cards or debit cards were used genuinely in one specific location prior to detection of subsequent fraudulent transactions. Even when not the CPP, automated teller machines may be the mechanism used to convert compromised credit cards and debit cards into hard cash, so long as the credit card fraud or debit card fraud included compromise of the personal identification number (PIN).

ATM skimming is now common in most parts of the world that have a mature network of ATMs, self-service terminals and point of sale (POS) terminals that accept magnetic stripe based credit cards and debit cards. Most bank ATM security issues and ATM fraud issues involving ATM skimming are the result of criminals attaching an ATM skimmer to the ATM card reader slot. Europe has historically been one of the most targeted geographies for ATM skimming attacks, although the world-wide spread of such ATM skimming fraud has been, and continues to be significant.

ATM deposit fraud which includes both cash deposit fraud and cheque fraud (check fraud) at automated teller machines is one type of ATM fraud that is particularly common in the US where many banks have a culture of crediting and allowing drawings against the deposit prior to manual reconciliation and verification.

ATM hacking should really only be used to describe attacks against the internals of the ATMs software or the ATMs systems security but is commonly used to describe attacks against card processors and other components of the transaction processing network. The US  have experienced a number of high profile ‘ATM hack’ attacks against well known credit card and debit card processors. Some of the systems security breaches have included compromise of the PIN in addition to the card data, with subsequent fraudulent spend using cloned credit cards and cloned debit cards at ATMs.

Another ATM fraud issue is ATM card theft which includes credit card trapping and debit card trapping at ATMs. Originating in South America this type of ATM fraud has spread globally. Although somewhat replaced in terms of volume by ATM skimming incidents, a re-emergence of card trapping has been noticed in regions such as Europe where EMV Chip and PIN cards have increased in circulation.

ATM funds transfer fraud is prevalent in Asia. This ATM scam involves criminals tricking victims into using the automated teller machine to transfer money into the criminals account.

ATM security attacks involving physical attacks against the ATM security enclosure are widely spread. ATM explosive attacks although originating and not uncommon in Europe are more prevalent in Australia and South Africa.

ATM ram raid incidents also occur globally but are most prevalent in the US, perhaps partly due to the large number of ATMs deployed in soft-target locations such as convenience stores.

ATM security incidents involving a high degree of precision to gain access to the ATM security enclosure occur globally. The UK and Canada have experienced many such precision ATM security attacks in recent years.Never accept a faxed bank deposit slip as proof of payment. Amounts and details can easily be changed to reflect a higher value or that it is a cash deposit. Check with your bank first that the correct amount has been deposited and whether the deposit is cash or cheque. If it is a cheque deposit, wait until the cheque has been paid (usually this will take seven days) before you release goods.

What is card skimming?

‘Card skimming’ is the illegal copying of information from the magnetic strip of a credit or ATM card. It is a more direct version of a phishing scam.

The scammers try to steal your details so they can access your accounts. Once scammers have skimmed your card, they can create a fake or ‘cloned’ card with your details on it. The scammer is then able to run up charges on your account.

Card skimming is also a way for scammers to steal your identity (your personal details) and use it to commit identity fraud. By stealing your personal details and account numbers the scammer may be able to borrow money or take out loans in your name.
Warning signs

* A shop assistant takes your card out of your sight in order to process your transaction.
* You are asked to swipe your card through more than one machine.
* You see a shop assistant swipe the card through a different machine to the one you used.
* You notice something suspicious about the card slot on an ATM (e.g. an attached device).
* You notice unusual or unauthorized transactions on your account or credit card statement.
Protect yourself from card skimming
* Keep your credit card and ATM cards safe. Do not share your personal identity number (PIN) with anyone. Do not keep any written copy of your PIN with the card.
* Check your bank account and credit card statements when you get them. If you see a transaction you cannot explain, report it to your credit union or bank.
* Choose passwords that would be difficult for anyone else to guess.

As well as following these specific tips, find out how to protect yourself from all sorts of other scams.
Do your homework

If you are using an ATM, take the time to check that there is nothing suspicious about the machine.

Ask yourself if you trust the person or trader who you are handing your card over to. If a shop assistant looks like they are going to take your card out of your sight, ask if it is really necessary.

If an ATM looks suspicious, do not use it and alert the ATM owner.

If you are in a shop and the assistant wants to swipe your card out of your sight, or in a second machine, you should ask for your card back straight away and either pay with a cheque or cash, or not make the purchase.

Now how to use ATM in Secure Way. Check it out

#1

First of all locate an ATM which you wan to use. They can commonly be found either on the outside walls of banks (inbuilt ATMs) or in convenience and department stores (freestanding ATMs). In terms of security they are similar because of the fact that freestanding machines are more closely watched and are in more public places. Bank ATMs are more difficult to tamper with and are regularly checked by the bank, however they are more often in secluded areas where thieves can take their time to work on them.
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Step 2

Look around the immediate area where the ATM is located for security cameras. Thieves are much less likely to try to target an ATM if it is being watched by a camera. similarly if the machine is in a place with constant attention, such as a busy shopping mall, thieves are less likely to strike.
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Step 3

When approaching the machine, look closely at the front of the card slot. If this has been burned and melted somewhat, of if the slot protrudes more than it usually would then a cloning device may have been fitted. Many devices for cloning cards fit over the existing slot, so if the colors of these parts are slightly different in color to the rest of the machine, this is also something to look out for.
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Step 4

If the ATM look different to the last time that you used it, then look at the new pieces, as they might contain a cameras used to recording pin numbers, These cameras are often hidden in either plastic panels which are fitted over the original or in ordinary looking pamphlet holders on the side of the ATM. Real ranks pamphlet holders are always located to the side of the machine altogether rather than in a position that could be used for recording pin numbers.
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Step 5

Contact your card provider if you suspect any ATM which you have seen has been tampered with. As an extra precaution, using a smart card is also a good idea These cards have a chip built into them and so are much harder for thieves to read. Because of this they are often impervious to most kinds of fraudulent card reader as the technology needed to read this chip is fairly large and bulky, and cannot easily be hidden on the outside of an ATM.

ATM skimmers are devices that thieves install on ATM machines to steal the financial information of others. Sometimes there is also a tiny camera installed that will record the user’s pin number. The criminals that use these devices are also called skimmers. Here are some Tips you can do to protect yourself from ATM skimmers.
#1

Learn to recognize a skimmer when you see one. If you see wires poking out, a scanner that does not seem secure, multiple scanning devices, or a sticker that says scan here first, do not use the machine.
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Step 2

Do not use a machine if someone offers to help you with it. Often the criminals who install skimmers stay nearby and “assist” users with their transaction. They may pose as another customer, or a technician working on the machine.
#
Step 3

Be secretive when entering your pin number. Cover the keys with one hand in case someone is looking over your shoulder, or there is a hidden camera nearby.
#
Step 4

Make it a habit of using the same ATM machine as often as possible. If you do this you will be familiar with the ATM machine and will be able to spot if someone has installed a device or tampered with the ATM machine.
#
Step 5

Use ATM machines where video cameras are installed so that criminals will have a harder time installing skimmers.
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Step 6

Check the balance on your ATM card often so that if someone steals your information, you can minimize the damage. The faster you respond to ATM card theft, the better your chance is that the bank will fully reimburse you.

Some sensible safety tips:

* The person writing out a cheque should always attempt to use a ballpoint pen instead of making use of pens with more erasable inks like fountain pens or felt tip pens.
* To prevent unauthorised additions and/or alterations, commence all writing as close as possible to the left-hand margin, leaving no gaps and drawing a line through unused spaces.
* Any cheques that the account holder does not wish to be cashed should be crossed and, to ensure that a cheque is paid into the intended beneficiary’s account, the cheque should be marked with the words “Not Transferable” between two transverse lines.
* The customer should take responsibility for keeping his/her chequebook in a safe place to prevent unauthorised use.
* The customer should always keep his chequebook separate from his credit cards, ATM cards or any other document that bears his signature. If a thief gets hold of your chequebook, but does not have a sample of your signature, a forged signature will probably not resemble yours.
* All paid cheques that are returned with your bank statements should be kept in a safe place because they contain your signature. Fraudsters may even try to re-use these cheques.
* The customer should make a habit of doing monthly reconciliations on the cheques that were issued on his/her account.
* Regular recons should be done on all unused cheques in a chequebook against counterfoil or carbon copy records.
* The customer should report a stolen chequebook to his/her account holding or nearest FNB branch as soon as he/she detects that the chequebook is missing. There is also the ability to stop a cheque online via FNB Internet Banking.
* The posting of cheques should be avoided and, should it be necessary, cheques should be placed in non-transparent or dark envelopes without any staples / paper clips, which can be felt through the envelope.
* Never have any cheques lying around that have not been completed or fully signed.
* Many alternative payment methods exist that are safe and convenient and can even save on bank charges. These alternatives include Visa Cheque Cards, Visa Electron debit cards, Internet, Telephone and Cellphone Banking, ATM payments, debit orders and future dated payments.

Ashish Ravindranathan the 18-year-old IIT-Bombay first-year student has allegedly duped 25 credit card-holders and made a whopping Rs 6.5 lakh in just six months. Ashish completed studies at Delhi Public School in Ahmedabad in 2008, with 90% marks and went on to IIT-Bombay.

Ashish Ravindranathan modus operandi

Ashish used to pose as a bank executive, Ashish got credit card details from customers. He then used the data to book air tickets and buy laptops. He had tied up with a travel agent to cancel the tickets and share the booty, while the laptops he sold across the country at a discount. Every day, Ashish would call 50-100 credit card holders, offering to issue credit cards. He would then get details of credit cards that they already had. Some gullible customers fell for his ploy and even parted with the critical CVV number.

Ashish Ravindranathan was operating since October last year, said crime branch officers. It was like a movie the way he was trapped – disguised as gardeners and security guards, police trailed him to some of his favourite haunts in Ahmedabad to catch him red-handed as he made calls to credit card holders, posing as a representative of Barclays Bank.

A resident of Hyderabad – his father works in the US. Ashish lives with his mother and younger sister and the family is very comfortable financially. Ashish allegedly told the cops that he had got used to lavish spending and wanted to make quick money on the sly.

how all this Techniques used ,we start with a credit card cloning technique used by conmens.

Credit card cloning, or “skimming” as it is sometimes called, is a new technique whereby someone obtains your credit card details, copies them onto a bogus card and begins using the credit card. While credit card theft itself is not new, the manner in which the information is stolen is.

The first step is to recruit an individual willing to participate in the scheme. Bartenders, wait staff or shop assistants are often prime targets because of the sheer volume of credit cards they handle.

Recruits are given a pocketsize device with a scanning slot, something that resembles a pager and can be worn on a belt. They are instructed to swipe customers’ credit cards through the device. Because the process takes only a few seconds it can be done easily and inconspicuously without the customer or another employee noticing.

Swiping the credit card through the device copies the information held on the magnetic strip into memory. That information can subsequently be copied to a counterfeit card, complete with security holograms.

Alternatively, the information can be used to overwrite a stolen credit card which has become too hot to handle.

Do not underestimate the size of this problem. In the U.K. alone an astonishing $200m was spent with cloned credit cards in 2000. That’s over $500,000 every single day!

Finally Tips & Warnings
DO NOT REVEAL YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION OR ANY RELEVANT INFORMATION TO ANY KNOWN OR UNKNOWN PERSON.
*
If you suspect any problems with the ATM machines, do not use it and report it to the bank or establishment where it is installed.
*
If you see suspicious looking people around the ATM machine, do not use it.

GUARD YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION.
Be careful with giving out your personal information. Never give anyone your information for a reason you don’t understand or are not comfortable with. Whenever possible, request to use other types of identification.

**Additionally, never carry around your social security card,Passport,Voters Id card,. Always keep it in a secure, private place.
#
Step 2

PROTECT YOUR E- MAIL,Post mailers,Telephone bills,Electricity bills,credit card recipts,credit card bills.
To keep a thief from stealing personal information about you by snooping through your trash or recycling bin, protect your all bills: Always tear or shred your charge receipts, credit applications, insurance forms, bank statements, expired charge cards, and preapproved credit offers. Additionally, put all outgoing mail in mailboxes or at your local post office and promptly take your mail from your mailbox after it’s delivered. If you’re going on vacation, call your post office to request a vacation hold.
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Step 3

PROTECT YOUR CREDIT CARDS.
Keep the number of cards you carry in your wallet to a minimum. If you lose a card, contact the fraud division of your credit card company. If you apply for a new card and it doesn’t come in a reasonable amount of time, contact the card issuer. Watch cashiers whenever you give them your card for a purchase. Whenever you receive a new card, sign it in permanent ink and activate it immediately.
In addition, pay attention to your credit card billing cycles. Contact creditors if your bills arrive late or not at all. Missing bills could mean an identity thief has taken over your credit card account and changed the billing address.
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Step 4

PROTECT YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION AT HOME.
Make sure you keep all personal information about you in a secure place in your home especially if you are having work done, employ outside help, or live with a roommate.
#
Step 5

PROTECT YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION AT WORK.
Verify that your personal information is kept in a secure location and is only accessible to employees with a legitimate reason to review it.
#
Step 6

BE CAREFUL WITH PASSWORDS AND PINS.
In general, it’s best to memorize passwords and personal identification numbers instead of carrying them with you. Avoid using obvious or easily available information such as: your name or birth date, your mother’s maiden name, the last 4 digits of your SSN or phone number, or a series of consecutive numbers or letters.
#
Step 7

MONITOR YOUR CREDIT REPORT.
To guard against identity theft, check your credit report regularly to ensure that the information it contains is true and accurate. Report any suspicious looking information to the credit agency.
#
Step 8

BE VIGILANT!
But if you ever suspect that you might be the victim of possible identity theft, you can place an Initial 90 day Fraud Alert by calling any of the 3 national credit reporting agencies: Equifax, TransUnion, or Experian. The agency that accepts your request will notify the other 2 agencies, and will add the alert to your file or request additional information. You will receive a confirmation when the alert is added to your file.

Protect yourself from credit card scams

* NEVER send money, or give credit card or online account details to anyone you do not know and trust.
* Check your bank account and credit card statements when you get them. If you see a transaction you cannot explain, report it to your credit union or bank.
* Keep your credit card and ATM cards safe. Do not share your personal identity number (PIN) with anyone. Do not keep any written copy of your PIN with the card.
* Choose passwords that would be difficult for anyone else to guess.
* Try to avoid using public computers (at libraries or internet cafes) to do your internet banking.
* Do not use software on your computer that auto-completes online forms. This can give internet scammers easy access to your personal and credit card details.
* Do not give out your personal, credit card or online account details over the phone unless you made the call and the phone number came from a trusted source.
* Never send your personal, credit card or online account details through an email.
If you are buying something over the telephone or internet and want to use your credit card, make sure you know and trust the other party. If you want to provide your credit card details to a telemarketer, take their name and call them back on a phone number you find independently (i.e., not a number they give to you).

Check over your credit card and bank account statements as soon as you get them so that if anybody is using your account without your permission you can tell your bank.

Whenever you want to give out your credit card details, ask yourself if it is safe to do so. If you are very careful with your credit card and PIN, you can greatly reduce the chances of your credit card details ending up with a scammer.

So how do you protect yourself? You know the answer.

by Rohit Sharma for Gyandotcom

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जी हां ये है झांसी की रानी की 1850 मैं खींची गई मूल तस्वीर, जिसे सन 1850 में अंग्रेज फोटोग्राफर हॉफमैन ने लिया था। पिछले दिनों विश्व फोटोग्राफी दिवस यानि 19 अगस्त को पद्मश्री वामन ठाकरे द्वारा खींचे गए छायाचित्रों, कैनवास पे उकेरे चित्रों, लेखन कार्य और अन्य कलाकृतियों की प्रदर्शनी का आयोजन भोपाल में किया गया था। इस प्रदर्शनी में उनके विशेष आग्रह पे अहमदाबाद के एक एंटिक संग्रहकर्ता ने यह छायाचित्र भेजा था।

Communication link with Chandrayaan-1 broke on Saturday 29-8-2009

India’s moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, came to an abrupt end today after communication link with the spacecraft snapped. The spacecraft, which has 11 instruments on board including six from overseas, will now continue to orbit the moon and may eventually taste the lunar dust. Launched on October 22 last year, it was expected to orbit the moon for two years.

“We lost communication link with the spacecraft for the first time in the wee hours of Saturday. Attempts to re-establish contact have been futile. The mission is as good as lost,” Indian Space Research Organisation Director S Satish said. “We may have to abandon the spacecraft if we are not able to establish radio contact with it again,” he added. “The mission is definitely over. We have lost contact with the spacecraft,” Chandrayaan-1 Project Director M Annadurai told to gyandotcom.

The problem surfaced at 0130 hrs when ISRO suddenly lost radio contact with the spacecraft. Since then it has neither been able to receive nor send any data to the spacecraft. The Deep Space Network at Byalalu near Bangalore received data from Chandrayaan-1 up to 0025 hrs. A detailed review of the telemetry data received from the spacecraft is in progress and health of the spacecraft subsystems is being analysed, said a statement from ISRO.

The Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota. The project cost was around Rs 390 crore. The 1,380 kg spacecraft has completed 312 days in space and has made over 3,400 orbits around the moon. It has provided large volume of data from sophisticated sensors, and has met most of the scientific objectives of the mission.

ISRO had said last month that Chandrayaan-1 had sent more than 70,000 images of the lunar surface which provide breathtaking views of lunar mountains and craters, especially craters in the permanently shadowed areas of the moon’s polar region. It was also collecting valuable data pertaining to the chemical and mineral content of earth’s satellite. “It ( Chandrayaan-1) has done its job technically…100 per cent. Scientifically also, it has done 90-95 percent of its job,” PTI quoted Annadurai as saying.

However, in July, Chandrayaan-1 had developed a malfunction that put some experiments in jeopardy – it had lost a vital sensor. ISRO Chairman G Madhavan Nair had said that scientists had worked around the problem and patched two other instruments to help the spacecraft to the desired locations.

It was then that he had indicated that the life of Chandrayaan-1 may be reduced.

Still, on August 21, ISRO and NASA performed a unique joint experiment that the Indian space agency said could yield additional information on the possible existence of ice in a permanently shadowed crater near the North pole of the moon.

The idea of undertaking an Indian scientific mission to Moon was first mooted in a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1999 that was followed up by discussions in the Astronautical Society of India in 2000.

But it was only in November 2003 that the government approved ISRO’s proposal for the first Indian Moon Mission called Chandrayaan-1.

The government had also announced its plans to launch Chandrayaan-2, the second unmanned lunar exploration mission proposed by ISRO, at a cost of around Rs 450 crore.

The mission will include a lunar orbiter as well as a lander/rover.

However, the abrupt end of Chandrayyan-1 may now raise doubts about its proposed launch in 2012.

“Radio contact with Chandrayaan-I spacecraft was abruptly lost at 1.30 a.m. (IST) on August 29, 2009. The Deep Space Network at Byalalu near Bangalore received data from [it] during the previous orbit up to 12.25 a.m. (IST),” the agency said in a short statement.

Senior officials connected with the Rs 380-crore lunar orbiter mission were not immediately available to say what had gone wrong. The statement said telemetry data received from the spacecraft were being reviewed and the health of the spacecraft subsystems was being assessed.

Mr S. Satish, Director, Publicity and Public Relations, said: “We are able to neither send commands nor receive any data from the spacecraft.” He said the spacecraft did not show any recent sign of deterioration.

Asked if this was the end of the mission and about the fate of the spacecraft, he said: “As we have lost contact with the spacecraft, we do not know what has happened to it.”

The timing of the announcement of Chandrayaan-1 is ironical. ISRO, along with the Astronautical Society of India, is hosting a five-day international conference on low-cost planetary mission in Goa, where 40 overseas participants are expected. ISRO’s Chairman and Secretary of the Department of Space, Mr G. Madhavan Nair, is also the President of ASI.

EARLY PROBLEMS

Chandrayaan-I was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, on October 22, 2008. It was built for a life of two years and was to circle Moon pole to pole from a distance of 100 km to map its surface and look for water and vital minerals. The first signs of trouble started showing within months, although ISRO acknowledged it only three months later.

On May 19, ISRO doubled the orbiting distance to 200 km, explaining that this was to save the instruments from the intense heat of radiation from Moon’s surface. Again, on July 17, Mr Nair told newspersons that the two onboard star-tracking sensors had failed in April and the lunar craft was facing an orientation problem.

It had been stabilised by an alternative mode with gyroscopes. This did not mean the craft was crippled or dying, he said.

Mr Nair had also said all other instruments were functioning well but there was concern about the High Energy X-ray Spectrometer or HEX, which may have been hit by radiation. HEX is meant to detect water, uranium and thorium. “A complex mission like this can encounter unexpected problems,” was the refrain of senior officials.

On the plus side, it had achieved most of the scientific objectives, including dropping the Tricolour on to lunar surface on November 14 last and the 3D lunar surface mapping, he had said.

Until Saturday, the spacecraft completed 312 days in orbit, made over 3,400 orbits around Moon and provided a large volume of data.

It carried 11 sophisticated sensors from ISRO and five agencies – including the Terrain Mapping Camera, Hyper-spectral Imager and the Moon Mineralogy Mapper. ISRO has at least one more lunar mission in the pipeline for 2012-13 and has teamed up with Russia for Chandrayaan-2.

however On Aug. 20, 2009 last week NASA and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)  attempt a novel joint experiment that could yield more information on whether ice exists in a permanently shadowed crater near the north pole of the moon. Currently the ISRO’s Chandrayaan-1 and NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft are orbiting the moon.  While LRO is in its commissioning phase the two spacecraft pass close enough to each other when they are over the lunar north pole to attempt a unique experiment.  Both spacecraft are equipped with a NASA Miniature Radio Frequency (RF) instrument that functions as a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), known as Mini-SAR on Chandrayaan-1 and Mini-RF on LRO.  The experiment uses both radars to point at Erlanger Crater at the same time.

Normally the Mini-RF Instrument sends radio pulses to the moon and precisely records the radio echoes that bounce straight back from the surface, along with their timing and frequency.  From these data scientists can build images of the moon that not only show areas they otherwise couldn’t see, such as the permanently-shadowed areas near the lunar poles, but also contain information on the physical nature of the surface.

For the Bi-Static experiment the Mini-SAR on Chandrayaan-1 performs its normal SAR imaging (transmitting and receiving) while the Mini-RF is set to receive only.  The two instruments look at the same location from different angles.  Comparing the signal that bounces straight back to Chandrayaan with the signal that bounces at a slight angle to LRO provides unique information about the surface.

Arecibo Radiotelescope Puerto Rico – Low resolution Earth-based radar image of the North Pole of the Moon, showing the position of the crater Erlanger (arrow). Radar image (70 cm wavelength).

Stewart Nozette, Mini-RF principal investigator from the Universities Space Research Association’s Lunar and Planetary Institute, said, “An extraordinary effort was made by the whole NASA team working with ISRO to make this happen”

While this coordination sounds easy, this experiment is extremely challenging because both spacecraft are traveling at about 1.6 km per second and will be looking at an area on the ground about 18 km across.  Due to the extreme speeds and the small point of interest, NASA and ISRO need to obtain and share information about the location and pointing of both spacecraft.  The Bi-Static experiment requires extensive tracking by ground stations of NASA’s Deep Space Network, the Applied Physics Laboratory, and ISRO.

Even with the considerable planning and coordination between the U.S. and India the two instrument beams may not overlap, or may miss the desired location.  Even without hitting the exact location Scientists may still be able to use the Bi-Static information to further knowledge already received from both instruments.

“The international coordination and cooperation between the two agencies for this experiment is an excellent opportunity to demonstrate future cooperation between NASA and ISRO, “says Jason Crusan, program executive for the Mini-RF program, from NASA’s Space Operations Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C.

ISRO/NASA/JHUAPL/LPI – Mosaic of Mini-SAR image strips of the north polar area, showing the crater Erlanger, just south of the crater Peary. North Pole is in the direction of left top, out of frame. Mini-SAR radar image, Chandrayaan-1 mission.

“In the last few years we have seen a renaissance in international interest and cooperation in the study of the moon” says Gordon Johnson, program executive for the LRO, from NASA’s Exploration Systems Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C.  “As LRO completes its commissioning phase, we look forward to LRO’s contribution to this international effort.”

LRO was launched June 18, 2009. Its objectives are to scout for safe landing sites, locate potential resources, characterize the radiation environment, and demonstrate new technology. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. built and manages the mission for NASA’S Exploration Systems Mission Directorate in Washington. LRO is a NASA mission with international participation from the Institute for Space Research in Moscow. Russia provides the neutron detector aboard the spacecraft.

Instrument principal investigators Stewart Nozette (LRO) and Paul Spudis (Chandrayaan-1) are from the Universities Space Research Association’s Lunar and Planetary Institute. NASA’s Space Operations Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters, manages the Mini-RF program.  NASA’s Exploration Systems Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters, manages the LRO.

In addition to Mini-SAR the Chandryaan-1 spacecraft, which was launched in October 2008 from India’s Satish Dhawan Space Centre, also carries NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper for assessing the moon’s mineral resources.

In the next six months the team will wrestle with the details of launching such a mission, including its cost-effectiveness and the areas in which Indian scientists can significantly add to the mountain of knowledge that has already been collected about the moon. It will form the basis of a project report that ISRO will submit to the Central Government for approval. The objective: to have an Indian lunar mission sent up by  October 2008. “As a motivator, it will electrify the nation,” Kasturirangan explained  last week. “If we go ahead, it will demonstrate to the world that India is capable of taking up a complex mission that is at the cutting edge of space. The spins-offs for us are going to be many.”first planetary mission, Chandrayaan-1, has now been rescheduled to take place in the first week of July as the mission personnel work overtime to sort out payload integration and launch-related issues. “We are targeting the end of June. We will try to make it in the first week of July,” a senior scientist associated with the Rs 386 crore moon mission told here on Monday on condition of anonymity.
The lunar mission was originally scheduled for April this year, a time-frame targeted four years ago to get all the payloads well ahead of time and to galvanise the scientists into mission mode with a target to work on.

Indian Space Research Organisation officials insisted that there are no hardware problems and that the space agency is moving more cautiously to ensure that all systems are well tested before and after integration at each stage.

The 525-kg lunar orbiter will carry as many as 11 instruments (payloads), including six from overseas — two from the US and one each from Britain, Sweden, Germany and Bulgaria.

“Normally we have 2-3 instruments (on board satellite). For the first time, we have 11 instruments from different institutions. We have to ensure that the integration work takes place to our satisfaction
Project Director of Chandrayaan-1.

Stressing on inter-compatibility of various instruments on board, Annadurai said ISRO is working on ensuring that “all the systems (one system) does not disturb other systems’ performance”. “Any system of this volume will have its own issues that need to be solved before proceeding to the next step,” he said.

“The issue gets compounded as the organisations are many. When we do this, it will add to taking away schedule cushions. Just to keep the launch target, we don’t want to overlook any issue that will compromise the unqualified success of the mission”.

ISRO had earlier proposed to launch the lunar probe on April 9 and if not on that day, then on April 23.

“If systems (once integrated and with propellants loaded) are kept for 14 days, then there could be some deterioration”, he said, adding, ISRO is now working on a strategy that would allow it to have more number of launch opportunities. “We have almost arrived at a strategy”.

ISRO would keep a half-an-hour launch window on a given day, and if it is not in a position for the mission during that period, it could be done in the subsequent two days as well, Annadurai explained.While the spacecraft itself will not land on the Moon, it will act as an orbiter and land a rover on the surface. The spacecraft is being launched next month sometime between October 22 and October 26 2008. The spacecraft payload includes 11 payloads (including one from NASA) and will perform remote sensing and studies of the lunar surface. The mission is estimated to cost Rs 386 crore (~ 84.3 million USD).”

The Working Model of Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1

How it Works?

The primary objectives of the Chandrayaan-1 mission are simultaneous chemical, mineralogicaland topographic mapping of the lunar surface at high spatial resolution. These data should enableus to understand compositional variation of major elements, which in turn, should lead to a betterunderstanding of the stratigraphic relationships between various litho units occurring on the lunarsurface. The major element distribution will be determined using an X-ray fluorescence spectro-meter (LEX), sensitive in the energy range of 1–10 keV where Mg, Al, Si, Ca and Fe give their Kαlines. A solar X-ray monitor (SXM) to measure the energy spectrum of solar X-rays, which areresponsible for the fluorescent X-rays, is included. Radioactive elements like Th will be measured byits 238.6 keV line using a low energy gamma-ray spectrometer (HEX) operating in the 20–250 keVregion. The mineral composition will be determined by a hyper-spectral imaging spectrometer(HySI) sensitive in the 400–920 nm range. The wavelength range is further extended to 2600 nmwhere some spectral features of the abundant lunar minerals and water occur, by using a near-infrared spectrometer (SIR-2), similar to that used on the Smart-1 mission, in collaboration withESA. A terrain mapping camera (TMC) in the panchromatic band will provide a three-dimensionalmap of the lunar surface with a spatial resolution of about 5m. Aided by a laser altimeter (LLRI)to determine the altitude of the lunar craft, to correct for spatial coverage by various instruments,TMC should enable us to prepare an elevation map with an accuracy of about 10m.Four additional instruments under international collaboration are being considered. These are:a Miniature Imaging Radar Instrument (mini-SAR), Sub Atomic Reflecting Analyser (SARA),the Moon Mineral Mapper (M3) and a Radiation Monitor (RADOM). Apart from these scientificpayloads, certain technology experiments have been proposed, which may include an impactorwhich will be released to land on the Moon during the mission.Salient features of the mission are described here. The ensemble of instruments onboardChandrayaan-1 should enable us to accomplish the science goals defined for this mission.Chandrayaan-1 is a remote sensing mission pro-posed to be launched from the Satish DhawanLaunch Station at Sriharikota in 2007 by theIndian Space Research Organization using thePolar Satellite Launch Vehicle. It will be injectedinto 240×36,000 km Elliptic Transfer Orbit (ETO)around the Earth and will be inserted in a circum-lunar orbit (LOI) via Lunar Transfer Trajectory(LTT). The launch profile is discussed in detail inan accompanying paper (Adimurthy et al 2005). Itwill enter the lunar orbit at about 1000 km altitudeand brought down to 100 km polar circular orbitin one or two stages. The lunar craft is designedto orbit the moon for a period of two years duringwhich it will carry out chemical, mineralogical andtopographic study of the lunar surface.There are several questions which are critical forunderstanding the formation and early evolution-ary history of the Moon, and the Chandrayaan-1mission objectives have been formulated keepingthis in mind.The main objective of the mission is simultane-ous chemical, mineral and topographic mappingwith the specific goal of understanding the earlyevolution of the Moon. Chemical stratigraphy canprovide better estimation of the average lunar com-position and processes responsible for chemical dif-ferentiation of the Moon. Transport of volatiles,specifically water, and their deposition in thecolder regions of the Moon and degassing of theMoon can be understood by using radon and itsdaughter nuclide210Pb as tracers.

When
Chandrayaan-1 planned to be launched in 2008 using spacecraft and launch vehicle of ISRO. The mission is expected to have an operational life of about 2 years.

The idea of undertaking an Indian scientific mission to Moon was initially mooted in a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1999 that was followed up by discussions in the Astronautical Society of India in 2000. Based on the recommendations made by the learned members of these forums, a National Lunar Mission Task Force was constituted by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Leading Indian scientists and technologists participated in the deliberations of the Task Force that provided an assessment on the feasibility of an Indian Mission to the Moon as well as dwelt on the focus of such a mission and its possible configuration.

Government of India approved ISRO’s proposal for Chandrayaan-1 in November 2003.

Chandrayaan will be ready to launch in between October 19 and October 28.

chandrayaan 1 is now in lunar orbit. the scientific objective of the mission is

The Chandrayaan-1 mission is aimed at high-resolution remote sensing of the moon in visible, near infrared (NIR), low energy X-rays and high-energy X-ray regions. Specifically the objectives are

To prepare a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and altitude resolution of 5-10 m) of both near and far side of the moon. To conduct chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface for distribution of mineral and chemical elements such as Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Calcium, Iron and Titanium as well as high atomic number elements such as Radon, Uranium & Thorium with high spatial resolution.

The Simultaneous photo geological, mineralogical and chemical mapping through Chandrayaan-1 mission will enable identification of different geological units to infer the early evolutionary history of the Moon. The chemical mapping will enable to determine the stratigraphy and nature of the Moon’s crust and thereby test certain aspects of magma ocean hypothesis. This may allow to determine the compositions of impactors that bombarded the Moon during its early evolution which is also relevant to the formation of the Earth. Scientific Objectives The Chandrayaan-1 mission is aimed at high-resolution remote sensing of the moon in visible, near infrared (NIR), low energy X-rays and high-energy X-ray regions. Specifically the objectives are To prepare a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and altitude resolution of 5-10 m) of both near and far side of the moon. To conduct chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface for distribution of mineral and chemical elements such as Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Calcium, Iron and Titanium as well as high atomic number elements such as Radon, Uranium & Thorium with high spatial resolution. The Simultaneous photo geological, mineralogical and chemical mapping through Chandrayaan-1 mission will enable identification of different geological units to infer the early evolutionary history of the Moon. The chemical mapping will enable to determine the stratigraphy and nature of the Moon’s crust and thereby test certain aspects of magma ocean hypothesis. This may allow to determine the compositions of impactors that bombarded the Moon during its early evolution which is also relevant to the formation of the Earth. Click here to enlarge Radiation Environment of the Moon Radiation environment of the Moon produced by solar radiation and solar and galactic cosmic rays: The reflectance spectrum is useful for mineral identification, the fluorescent X-ray spectrum and solar and galactic cosmic-ray produced gamma radiation for chemical mapping, and radiogenic gamma and alpha particle spectrum for mapping of radioactive nuclides (U, Th, K, etc.) and in understanding the leakage of radon from the lunar interior and its transport on the lunar surface. The uranium decay chain, which produces 222Rn and its daughters, forming a thin ‘paint’ on the lunar surface, are shown on the right. The temperature regimes on the sunlit and night side of the Moon and the permanently shadowed cold Polar Regions are shown schematically Mission Objectives To realise the mission goal of harnessing the science payloads, lunar craft and the launch vehicle with suitable ground support systems including Deep Space Network (DSN) station. To realise the integration and testing, launching and achieving lunar polar orbit of about 100 km, in-orbit operation of experiments, communication/ telecommand, telemetry data reception, quick look data and archival for scientific utilisation by scientists.

by Gyandotcom

Every day, Indian consumers receive offers that just sound too good to be true. In the past, these offers came through the mail or by telephone. Now the con artists and swindlers have found a new avenue to pitch their frauds — the Internet. The on-line scams know no national borders or boundaries; they respect no investigative jurisdictions. But, as with all scammers, they have one objective — to separate you from your money! An interesting point about fraud is that it is a crime in which you decide on whether to participate. Hanging up the phone or not responding to shady mailings or emails makes it difficult for the scammer to commit fraud. But con artists are very persuasive, using all types of excuses, explanations, and offers to lead you — and your money — away from common sense.

Gyandotcom was developed to arm you with information so you don’t fall victim to these Internet scam artists. Education, good judgment, and a healthy dose of skepticism are the best defenses against becoming a victim. Remember, if it looks too good to be true, it probably is!.

The Microsoft Windows Xp Antivirus 2009 SCAM

To some of the people that are reading this, it may sound familiar.  To others, perhaps not so much.  Either way, what follows is a description of what happens when you get infected with the XP Antivirus 2009 or the other programs of its ilk.

So, you’re browsing the internet, minding your own business, when suddenly a window pops up when you hit a page you don’t normally go to.  This window tells you that you’ve been infected with viruses, and shows a running tally of how many viruses you’ve been infected with.  It also says that to buy the upgrade for your Antivirus program to get rid of these viruses click here.

It would almost seem natural to click on the link and buy the upgrade.  That’s when the real fun begins.  That will be discussed later.  The first thing to notice is why did this window pop up in the first place?

It is a common feature of viruses to let the user know that they’ve been infected.  It originally started as a point of arrogance for the creator of the virus.  Later, some virus makers decided to start using it to swindle the people they’ve infected out of money.  That was the phase where “SpySheriff” and its clones were the predominant viruses.  Now, the criminal programmers have taken this a step further, and decided to make it look like a Windows program.  It should be known that no version of Windows ever had a feature that let the user know that they were infected with a virus.

The second thing to notice at this point is the file names and locations that are being called “viruses.”  More often than not, they are just temporary files or cookies that the user has picked up on his internet browsing.  Not a one of them are viruses.  This should relieve that state of panic that they try to instill in you at this point.

The last thing to notice before the link to this “upgrade” is clicked is that they are asking for money.  No program that is part of the Windows Operating Systems will ever, EVER ask for money to upgrade.  It really is as simple as that.

Let’s say that you click the upgrade, another dead giveaway has been revealed.  Instead of being linked to the Windows Update page, you are linked to another.  It may take a little observation, since sometimes the linked pages are clones of the Windows Update page.  The ultimate true way to tell is by the address box at the top of your browser screen.  Dimes to donuts, it will not show the same address as the Windows Update page, which is: http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/. Even better, you can set your Windows to be automatically updated.  This way, if any program that claims to be from Windows says it needs updating, you know it’s wrong, because it would just do it without any effort on your part.

Lastly, you should have a powerful antivirus program installed on your computer.  If you already have a good antivirus program, there will be no need to get another one.  For the security of your system, get one before this happens to you.  It will save you a lot of headaches.

Con artists make money through deception. They lie, cheat and fool people into thinking they’ve happened onto a great deal or some easy money, when they’re the ones who’ll be making money. If that doesn’t work, they’ll take advantage of our weaknesses — loneliness, insecurity, poor health or simple ignorance. The only thing more important to a con artist than perfecting a con is perfecting a total lack of conscience.

What does the average con artist look like? Despite what you may think, he isn’t always a shady-looking character. A con artist is an expert at looking however he needs to look. If the con involves banking or investments, the con artist will wear a snappy suit. If it involves home improvement scams, he’ll show up wearing well-worn work clothes. Even the basic assumption You might think you can spot a con artist because he’s someone you instinctively “don’t trust.” But the term con artist is short for confidence artist — they gain your confidence just long enough to get their hands on your money. They can be very charming and persuasive. A good con artist can even make you believe he is really an old friend you haven’t seen in years.

Con artists do share certain characteristics, however. Even the best con can only go on for so long before people start getting suspicious. For that reason, con artists tend to move frequently. They may have a job that allows this, or they might claim to have such a job. Railroad worker, carnival worker and traveling salesman are all parts con artists play to cover up their constant relocations.that the contact would be impossible to catalogue every con, because con artists are inventive. While many cons are simply variations on ones that are hundreds of years old, new technologies and laws give con artists the opportunity to create original scams. Many cons tend to fall into a few general categories, however: street cons, business cons, Internet cons, loan cons and home improvement cons.on is a “he” is incorrect: there are plenty of con women too.t would be impo ssible to catalogue every con, because con artists are inventive. While many cons are simply variations on ones that are hundreds of years old, new technologies and laws give con artists the opportunity to create original scams.

The Pigeon Drop

There are several variations of this con, but they all start with the victim and the con artist both spotting something of value lying around. It’s usually an envelope or bag full of money, but it could be a diamond ring. The con artist tries to get the victim to notice the envelope first, making him less likely to suspect that the con artist planted it. A second con artist may get involved as the victim and the first con artist decide to split up the found money, demanding a fair share since he saw it too. At this point, the cons will suggest that everyone put some of their own money into the envelope as “good faith money,” to show that they’re financially responsible people. Once all of the money is in the envelope, it is divided into thirds and returned to the victim and the two con artists. However, through sleight of hand and a distraction, the victim gets an envelope full of paper scraps.

In the ring variation, the con artist claims to have some expertise in jewelry assessment, and proclaims the ring to be worth several hundred dollars or more. However, not having time to sell or pawn the ring, the con artist offers to let the victim buy out his half. So the victim pays what he can to the con artist and keeps the “valuable” ring, which is actually a cheap fake. The victim, or “pigeon,” is “dropped” and left with nothing.

It’s impossible to come to India and not encounter at least one scam or someone trying to rip you off. You shouldn’t be paranoid, but it’s wise to be very aware and cautious.

Here are the details of the most common scams that you’re likely to find in India.

The Nigerian Advance Fee Scam had been existed around for quite a while, but despite many warnings it continues to draw in many victims. In fact, the Financial Crimes Division of the Secret Service receives about 100 telephone calls from victims/potential victims and 300-500 letter pieces of related correspondence per day about this 419 scam! Indications are that the advance fee fraud grabs hundreds of millions of dollars yearly and the losses are continuing to escalate.

The Nigerian Advance Fee Scheme also known as “4-1-9″ (scam) fraud after the section of the Nigerian penal code which addresses fraud schemes is usually targeted at small and the medium sized businesses, plus charities. This global scam (lately it is seen in Russia, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, also in the US), which involves the receipt of an unwelcome letter claiming to come from somebody who claims to work for the Nigerian Central Bank or from the Nigerian government. The Central Bank of Nigeria actually denies all connection to those who promote this spam scheme.

In the letter, a Nigerian claiming to be a senior civil servant would inform the recipient that he is seeking a honest foreign company into whose account he could deposit funds ranging from $10-$60 million which the Nigerian government actually overpaid on some procurement contract.

The goal of the 419 scammers is to delude the victim into thinking that he or she has been singled out to take part in a very lucrative, although questionable, arrangement. The intended victim is reassured of the genuineness of the arrangement by fake or false documents manner in fact official Nigerian government letterhead, seals, with false letters of credit, payments schedules and the bank drafts. The 419 Scam mail senders might even establish the credibility of his contacts, and thereby his influence, by arranging a meeting between the victim and “government officials” in real or may be with fake government offices.

Once the victim becomes confident of the ultimate success of the deal and something goes wrong. The victim who trusted this 419 scam mail is then pressured or even threatened to provide one or more large sums of money to save the existing venture. For example, an official would demand a frank bribe or with an unforeseen tax or fee to the Nigerian government would have to be paid before the money could actually be transferred. Each fee paid is been described as the very last fee required. The scheme might be prolonged out over many months.

Be careful. These 419 scammers could be physically dangerous as well as dangerous to your finances. Victims are roughly always requested to travel to Nigeria or to the border country to total a transaction. Victims are often told that a visa would not be necessary to enter the country. The 419 Nigerian scam artists could then try bribing airport officials to pass the victims through Immigration and Customs. Because it is a very serious offense in Nigeria to enter without a valid visa, the victim’s illegal entry might be used by the 419 Scam mailers as leverage to coerce the victims into releasing funds. Violence and threats of physical harm might be employed for further pressure to victims. In June of 1995, an American was also murdered in Lagos, Nigeria, while pursuing a 419 scam, and numerous other foreign nationals have been reported as missing.

Avoid these 419 scams like the disease! Don’t let promises of huge amounts of money impair your judgment?

Tips for Safely Buy Air Tickets Online

The Internet has certainly made things easier to shop at all hours of the night and buy from stores you normally wouldn’t have access to. However, online shoppers should learn to distinguish between the legitimate shops and the fraudulent sellers.

Know who you are purchasing from: Verify the seller with your local consumer protection agency and the Better Business Bureau. Surf the web for feedback forums to read up on people’s experience with the seller. Make sure you have the seller’s contact information in case you have to locate them later.

Understand how the seller handles complaints: Read up on the seller’s website and learn how they handle their complaints. Check to see if they are obliged to meet certain standards within their respective country.

Be wary if there are no complaints:Deceptive sellers can open and close shop overnight. If you don’t find complaints on the seller, it doesn’t mean that they are genuine.

Be on guard for super low prices or rebates that are too good to be true:The seller may in fact not have any merchandise at all to send or may not fulfill the promised rebate.

Get the low down on the offer:A legitimate shop provides all the details on the product, price, delivery time and refund policies, along with the terms of the warranty.

Don’t get pressured:You should be given the time to make a decision. If you are demanded to make the purchase quickly or the seller refuses to accept your “no” for an answer, then it could be a scam.

Watch out for an unsolicited email, it could be fraudulent:If you know the company that sent you the email and you don’t want to receive any more emails, you may simply ask to be removed from the list. However, if you respond to an unknown sender, your email address may be validated by the sender and you might receive even more unsolicited emails. The best way to deal with unsolicited emails is to simply delete them.

Spot the impostors:You might receive an email that seems as if it is connected to a legitimate business or has a Web site that looks genuine. If you have doubts, search for the company yourself and verify the email with the business.

Protect your private information:Never provide your credit card or bank information unless you are paying for something. Social security numbers are not needed unless you are applying for credit.

Buy safely:Using credit cards are the best way to assure your online purchases since you may dispute the charges if you never received the item or the offer was misrepresented.

Consumer Tips for Avoiding Phishing Scams

Identity thieves are targeting the personal information stored on your computer. Here are some basic tips on how to use the Internet safely.

Fishing Out the Phishing Scams: Recognize the phishing scams which typically involve phony emails and web sites that mimic companies in order to swindle citizens of their personal information. Legitimate companies never request user names, passwords, credit card numbers or social security by email. If you are troubled by your account, get in touch with the company directly.

Install all-inclusive security software and update it frequently: Deceitful emails can contain malicious software which can harm your computer or track your web activities, unbeknownst to you. Make sure an Internet security suite* is installed on your computer and is kept up to date.

Don’t Click the Link, It Could be a Trick: Do not click links or even cut and paste links from emails into your browser. Phishers are able to make links look like trustworthy site, but in fact send you to a different site. Instead, type in personally the company’s correct Web address.**

Never Enter Personal Info on Pop-up Screens: Phishers sometimes guide computer users to seemingly legitimate sites, but then an illicit pop-up screen appears with a form and fill-in blanks for personal information. Install pop-up blocking software to help avoid this type of phishing attack.

Verify the Web Site’s Security Status: When entering personal information on a company’s web site, check that the site is secure: a padlock icon appears on the browser’s status bar, or the URL (web address) reads “https:”. The “s” in https signifies “secure.” Be aware that these indications are not fail-safe since security icons may be forged. Computer users can also look for a seal such as the BBB Accredited Business seal on home pages, which notifies users if the company is accredited and meets certain standards.

Use Nonsensical, Long Passwords: Create passwords that use upper and lower case letters, numbers, special characters and are longer than six characters. It’s also wise to create nonsensical, random passwords that do not relate to your life such as a favorite baseball team. Instead of “123456,” a better case for a password would be “w39!BTu82.” Last, but not least, use different passwords for separate accounts and change them regularly.

5 Tips To Avoid E-card Scams

E-greeting cards have become a popular way to reach out to friends and family at holiday time and on special occasions. Regrettably, cybercriminals also take advantage of the growing popularity of e-cards by duping consumers into downloading malware. You can safeguard yourself, your friends, and your family against e-card scams by following the tips below.

Don’t open attachments: Most legitimate e-cards are links to the company’s website that allow you to go directly to your card. Avoid attachments and don’t download anything from a source you don’t recognize.

When in doubt, delete: If something looks a little strange or “phishy,” such as the name of the sender or vague subject lines, just delete the card. It’s better to do that than run the risk of getting a virus.

Know where you’re going online: Use security software* that detects sites that push online scams, adware installations, attachments filled with viruses and other downloads that could harm your system.

Know what to look for: While most e-card scams actually look legitimate, there are usually some telltale signs to look for. Watch out for misspelled words or names, not knowing who sent you the card, a disguised name (such as Your Friend, A Secret Admirer, etc.), or an odd URL.

Always read the fine print before accepting any terms: Make sure you actually read the fine print before agreeing to anything. Some e-card scams list in their terms that they can send e-mail to everyone in your address book. Make sure you know what you are agreeing to.

Malicious Ads on Bing: Online crooks have found a way to exploit Bing’s advertising program by posting malicious pharmaceutical ads. A recent report by KnujOn and LegitScript shows that 90% of Bing’s pharmacy ads were malicious. If an online user clicks on the ad, he or she may be directed to a phishing site to steal their personal and financial information. To avoid online ad scams, always make sure to investigate the company beforehand.

ISSUED IN PUBLIC INTEREST BY GYANDOTCOM

Credit and special Thanks to Sherall Cook

Contents  Curtesy: Top 5 common Scams in india by Sherall Cook

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WISHING YOU ALL HAPPY INDEPENDENCE DAY. 15th August 2009

THANK  YOU ALL THE FANS AND READERS OF GYANDOTCOM

WE HAVE CROSSED ONE MILLION HITS AND STILL STANDING TALL.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR KIND SUPPORT AND VALUABLE COMMENTS.

I HOPE WITH YOUR KIND SUPPORT AND LOVE

WE WILL REACHED AGAIN TO A NEW HEIGHTS

THANKS TO EVERY ONE

KEEP READING GYANDOTCOM AND FEEL FREE TO COMMENTS

WITH LOVE FROM

ROHIT SHARMA

&

TEAM GYANDOTCOM

Beware the Mars Hoax.

Update: Even nasa approve the mars hoax http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/07jul_marshoax.htm

Yes Its a Hoax every year this email spread on internet claming that red planet is coming near to earth and visible as big as moon.. this hoax email started in 2004.Yesterday  This lady ask me do you know in coming august something gonna happned on 27th august 2009.  i said i dont know. respected  lady  said you must know that mars is coming near to earth and its as big as moon. i got some doubt regarding the red planet, how planet mars break the orbital belt and come closer to earth.this question landed up in a investigation of the hoax email. and after talking to my friends in the nasa Research labs i got some useful right information.

lets talk about the truth behind Red planet comeing near to earth.

Mars as big as the moon on August 27? Email hoax claims August 27 will bring the closest encounter between Mars and Earth in recorded history. Unfortunately, this ‘once in a lifetime event’ already came and went in 6 years ago in August 2003.

Disappointed? Don’t be. If Mars did come close enough to rival the Moon, its gravity would alter Earth’s orbit and raise terrible tides.

Sixty-nine million km is good. At that distance, Mars shines brighter than anything else in the sky except the Sun, the Moon and Venus. The visual magnitude of Mars on Oct. 30, 2005, will be -2.3. Even inattentive sky watchers will notice it, rising at sundown and soaring overhead at midnight.

You might remember another encounter with Mars, about Seven years ago, on August 27, 2003. That was the closest in recorded history, by a whisker, and millions of people watched as the distance between Mars and Earth shrunk to 56 million km. This October’s encounter, at 69 million km, is similar. To casual observers, Mars will seem about as bright and beautiful in 2005 as it was in 2003.

Although closest approach is still months away, Mars is already conspicuous in the early morning. Before the sun comes up, it’s the brightest object in the eastern sky, really eye-catching. If you have a telescope, even a small one, point it at Mars. You can see the bright icy South Polar Cap and strange dark markings on the planet’s surface.
Above: Painted green by a flashlight, astronomer Dennis Mammana of California points out Mars to onlookers on Aug. 26, 2003, the last time Mars was so close to Earth. One day people will walk among those dark markings, exploring and prospecting, possibly mining ice from the polar caps to supply their settlements. It’s a key goal of NASA’s Vision for Space Exploration: to return to the Moon, to visit Mars and to go beyond.

Every day the view improves. Mars is coming–and that’s no hoax.

June 6, 2005: By the time you finish reading this sentence, you’ll be 25 miles closer to the planet Mars.

Earth is racing toward Mars at a speed of 23,500 mph, which means the red planet is getting bigger and brighter by the minute. In October, when the two planets are closest together, Mars will outshine everything in the night sky except Venus and the Moon. (You’re another 50 miles closer: keep reading!)

It’s only June, now, but Mars is already eye-catching. You can see it early in the morning, rising before the sun in the eastern sky, shining almost twice as bright as a 1st-magnitude star. A sky map, below, shows where to find Mars on Wednesday morning, June 29th, when it appears pleasingly close to the crescent Moon.

Why are we rushing toward Mars? It’s simple orbital mechanics. Think of Earth and Mars as two runners on a circular race track, with lanes corresponding to planetary orbits. Earth, running fast on the inside lane, circles the course in 12 months. Mars, plodding along an outside lane, takes twice as long to go around. Every two years, approximately, Earth catches Mars from behind and laps it.

That’s where we are now, approaching Mars from behind. Relative speed: 23,500 mph.

We won’t actually lap Mars until autumn, October 30th at 0319 Universal Time, to be exact. Only 43 million miles (69 million km) will separate us from Mars, then, compared to an average distance of about 140 million miles (225 million kilometers). It’s a great time to send spacecraft there.

Mindful of that, NASA Already launch the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) on August 10th, 2005. Because it takes 6+ months to reach Mars, the best time to start the trip is a month or so before closest approach–thus, August. MRO will arrive in March 2006, enter orbit, and begin a 2-year mission to map the red planet in greater detail than ever before.

The spacecraft’s high-resolution cameras will be able to discern objects, such as rocks and rovers and crashed Mars landers, less than 1 meter across. A radar sounder will probe for underground water while spectrometers map the distribution of surface minerals. Other instruments will monitor the atmosphere, teaching researchers back on Earth how to forecast martian weather. These are key elements in NASA’s plan to eventually send humans to Mars
Above: The HiRISE camera onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has 5-times better resolution than cameras on other Mars orbiters and might be able to take pictures of the lost Mars Polar Lander.
The Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity are already there. They arrived in January 2004 on the heels of another Earth-Mars close encounter in 2003. (Remember, this happens every two years.) The two robots were supposed to stop working months after they landed, worn down by wind, stuck in sand, or exhausted by too little solar power. Spirit and Opportunity are still rolling and, if they hold true to form, they’ll be “alive” to see Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter when it gets there, a tiny point of light in the martian night sky, mapping the red planet for explorers of the future.
Back on Earth people are going to enjoy watching Mars swell and brighten in the months ahead. By mid-summer, amateur astronomers with backyard telescopes will be able to spot polar ice caps and dust storms and strange dark markings. By autumn, even the least attentive of your neighbors will be remarking on “that bright red thing in the sky.”

Mark October 30th as the best day of all: Mars will rise at sunset, hang overhead at midnight, and “blaze forth against the dark background of space with a splendor that outshines Sirius and rivals the giant Jupiter himself.” That’s how astronomer Percival Lowell described a similar close encounter in the 19th century.

Can’t wait? Don’t. You can see Mars any clear morning this summer. We recommend Wednesday morning, June 29th. Mars and the fat crescent Moon are going to have a pleasing close encounter in the dawn sky. Look for them rising in the east around 4:30 AM; the sight will absolutely wake you up.

More good news: you’re now 1000 miles closer to the planet Mars.

The Truth of Mars

The Red Planet is Not a Dead Planet

Mars today is a world of cold and lonely deserts, apparently without life of any kind, at least on the surface. Indeed it looks like Mars has been cold and dry for billions of years, with an atmosphere so thin, any liquid water on the surface quickly boils away while the sun’s ultraviolet radiation scorches the ground.

The situation sounds bleak, but research published today in Science Express reveals new hope for the Red Planet. The first definitive detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars indicates that Mars is still alive, in either a biologic or geologic sense, according to a team of NASA and university scientists.

“Methane is quickly destroyed in the Martian atmosphere in a variety of ways, so our discovery of substantial plumes of methane in the northern hemisphere of Mars in 2003 indicates some ongoing process is releasing the gas,” says lead author Michael Mumma of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. “At northern mid-summer, methane is released at a rate comparable to that of the massive hydrocarbon seep at Coal Oil Point in Santa Barbara, Calif.”

Right: An artist’s concept of a possible geological source of Martian methane: subsurface water, carbon dioxide and the planet’s internal heat combine to release the gas.

Methane — four atoms of hydrogen bound to a carbon atom — is the main component of natural gas on Earth. It is of interest to astrobiologists because much of Earth’s methane come from living organisms digesting their nutrients. However, life is not required to produce the gas. Other purely geological processes, like oxidation of iron, also release methane. “Right now, we don’t have enough information to tell if biology or geology — or both — is producing the methane on Mars,” said Mumma. “But it does tell us that the planet is still alive, at least in a geologic sense. It’s as if Mars is challenging us, saying, hey, find out what this means.”

If microscopic Martian life is producing the methane, it likely resides far below the surface, where it’s still warm enough for liquid water to exist. Liquid water, as well as energy sources and a supply of carbon, are necessary for all known forms of life.

“On Earth, microorganisms thrive 2 to 3 kilometers (about 1.2 to 1.9 miles) beneath the Witwatersrand basin of South Africa, where natural radioactivity splits water molecules into molecular hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O). The organisms use the hydrogen for energy. It might be possible for similar organisms to survive for billions of years below the permafrost layer on Mars, where water is liquid, radiation supplies energy, and carbon dioxide provides carbon,” says Mumma.

“Gases, like methane, accumulated in such underground zones might be released into the atmosphere if pores or fissures open during the warm seasons, connecting the deep zones to the atmosphere at crater walls or canyons,” he says.

“Microbes that produced methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide were one of the earliest forms of life on Earth,” notes Carl Pilcher, Director of the NASA Astrobiology Institute which partially supported the research. “If life ever existed on Mars, it’s reasonable to think that its metabolism might have involved making methane from Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide.”

Above: one way methane is destroyed in the Martian atmosphere: the molecules are rapidly broken apart by solar ultraviolet radiation. Because methane doesn’t last long in the martian environment, any methane found there must be recently produced. [animation]

However, it is possible a geologic process produced the Martian methane, either now or eons ago. On Earth, the conversion of iron oxide (rust) into the serpentine group of minerals creates methane, and on Mars this process could proceed using water, carbon dioxide, and the planet’s internal heat. Another possibility is vulcanism: Although there is no evidence of currently active Martian volcanoes, ancient methane trapped in ice “cages” called clathrates might now be released.

The team found methane in the atmosphere of Mars by carefully observing the planet over several Mars years (and all Martian seasons) using spectrometers attached to telescopes at NASA’s Infrared Telescope Facility, run by the University of Hawaii, and the W. M. Keck telescope, both at Mauna Kea, Hawaii.

“We observed and mapped multiple plumes of methane on Mars, one of which released about 19,000 metric tons of methane,” says Geronimo Villanueva of the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. Villanueva is stationed at NASA Goddard and is co-author of the paper. “The plumes were emitted during the warmer seasons — spring and summer — perhaps because the permafrost blocking cracks and fissures vaporized, allowing methane to seep into the Martian air. Curiously, some plumes had water vapor while others did not,” he says.

Above: Methane plumes found in Mars’ atmosphere during the northern summer season. According to the team, the plumes were seen over areas that show evidence of ancient ground ice or flowing water. For example, plumes appeared over northern hemisphere regions such as east of Arabia Terra, the Nili Fossae region, and the south-east quadrant of Syrtis Major, an ancient volcano 1,200 kilometers (about 745 miles) across.

It will take future missions, like NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory, to discover the origin of the Martian methane. One way to tell if life is the source of the gas is by measuring isotope ratios. Isotopes are heavier versions of an element; for example, deuterium is a heavier version of hydrogen. In molecules that contain hydrogen, like water and methane, the rare deuterium occasionally replaces a hydrogen atom. Since life prefers to use the lighter isotopes, if the methane has less deuterium than the water released with it on Mars, it’s a sign that life is producing the methane.

Whatever future research reveals–biology or geology–one thing is already clear: Mars is not so dead, after all.

by Rohit Sharma

Before we move on to  what is swine flu and how it effects, i suppose now as its a Pandemic and effecting almost each and every major part of our country (India). here we would like to provide the right information how to prevent from swine flu. kindly read care fully and try to prevent your self from this deadly pandemic disease.

By now you’ve probably seen the frightening pictures from Pune .the death of 14 year  old girl and till now almost more then 4 people died by the swine infection, people trying to avoid catching the swine flu infection. Unfortunately swine flu has now been confirmed in multiple locations within the India. the death of reda in pune is because of less awareness and no precautions taken by the medical authorities.

So what precautions can you easily take to prevent being infected by swine flu?

#1

Always cover your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing; ideally use something disposable like a tissue. Avoid touching your face, nose or mouth too frequently with your hands since swine flu appears to be transmitted through respiratory droplets in the same fashion as the common cold.
#
Step 2

Wash your hands frequently with soap and water since swine flu like other viruses can be contracted by touching objects contaminated by the virus. It’s unsure how long the swine flu virus can survive on surrounding surfaces.
#
Step 3

Though alcohol based hand sanitizers don’t routinely kill viruses they probably do offer some limited protection in preventing swine flu infections.
#
Step 4

If swine flu infections have been medically confirmed in your area consider avoiding large public gatherings. Individuals can be contagious with the swine flu virus for several day before demonstrating any signs or symptoms of infection. Be particularly careful about indoor gatherings where air circulates poorly.
#
Step 5

If you’re really paranoid and don’t mind looking odd then consider wearing a respiratory mask. This barrier method does offer some basic protection against infection though not all masks are created equally. Higher quality masks capable of filtering out some respiratory infections are more expensive.
#
Step 6

If you start feeling ill with cold or flu-like symptoms do not go to work. Stay home and begin the usual home remedies for colds and flu. Contact your health care provider, local health department or hospital emergency room if your symptoms worsen or fail to improve for information about where to go to be screened for possible swine flu infection.

Beware of swine flu its your next door neighbour.  issued in public interest by gyandotcom

What is swine flu?
Like people, pigs can get influenza (flu), but swine flu viruses aren’t the same as human flu viruses. Swine flu doesn’t often infect people, and the rare human cases that have occurred in the past have mainly affected people who had direct contact with pigs. But the current swine flu outbreak is different. It’s caused by a new swine flu virus that has spread from person to person — and it’s happening among people who haven’t had any contact with pigs.

What are swine flu symptoms?
Symptoms of swine flu are like regular flu symptoms and include fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, headache, chills, and fatigue. Some people have reported diarrhea and vomiting associated with swine flu. Those symptoms can also be caused by many other conditions, and that means that you and your doctor can’t know, just based on your symptoms, if you’ve got swine flu. It takes a lab test to tell whether it’s swine flu or some other condition.

If I think I have swine flu, what should I do? When should I see my doctor?
If you have flu symptoms, stay home, and when you cough or sneeze, cover your mouth and nose with a tissue. Afterward, throw the tissue in the trash and wash your hands. That will help prevent your flu from spreading.

If you’ve got flu symptoms, and you’ve recently been to a high-risk area like Mexico, officials recommend that you see your doctor. If you have flu symptoms but you haven’t been in a high-risk area, you can still see a doctor — that’s your call.

Keep in mind that your doctor will not be able to determine whether you have swine flu, but he or she would take a sample from you and send it to a state health department lab for testing to see if it’s swine flu. If your doctor suspects swine flu, he or she would be able to write you a prescription for Tamiflu or Relenza. Those drugs may not be required; U.S. swine flu patients have made a full recovery without

How does swine flu spread? Is it airborne?
The new swine flu virus apparently spreads just like regular flu. You could pick up germs directly from an infected person, or by touching an object they recently touched, and then touching your eyes, mouth, or nose, delivering their germs for your own infection. That’s why you should make washing your hands a habit, even when you’re not ill. Infected people can start spreading flu germs up to a day before symptoms start, and for up to seven days after getting sick, according to the CDC.

The swine flu virus can become airborne if you cough or sneeze without covering your nose and mouth, sending germs into the air.

The U.S. residents infected with swine flu virus had no direct contact with pigs. it’s likely that the infections represent widely separated cycles of human-to-human infections.

How is swine flu treated?
The new swine flu virus is sensitive to the antiviral drugs Tamiflu and Relenza. We  recommends those drugs to prevent or treat swine flu; the drugs are most effective when taken within 48 hours of the start of flu symptoms. But not everyone needs those drugs; many of the first people in the U.S. with lab-confirmed swine flu recovered without treatment. The Department of Homeland Security has released 25% of its stockpile of Tamiflu and Relenza to states. Health officials have asked people not to hoard Tamiflu or Relenza.

Is there a vaccine against the new swine flu virus?
No. But the CDC and the World Health Organization are already taking the first steps toward making such a vaccine. That’s a lengthy process — it takes months.

I had a flu vaccine this season. Am I protected against swine flu?
No. This season’s flu vaccine wasn’t made with the new swine flu virus in mind; no one saw this virus coming ahead of time.

If you were vaccinated against flu last fall or winter, that vaccination will go a long way toward protecting you against certain human flu virus strains. But the new swine flu virus is a whole other problem.

How can I prevent swine flu infection?
Gyandotcom  recommends taking these major steps:

Wash your hands regularly with soap and water, especially after coughing or sneezing. Or use an alcohol-based hand cleaner.
Avoid close contact with sick people.
Avoid touching your mouth, nose, or eyes.

Can I still eat pork?
Yes. You can’t get swine flu by eating pork, bacon, or other foods that come from pigs.

What else should I be doing?
Keep informed of what’s going on in your community. Your state and local health departments may have important information if swine flu develops in your area. For instance, parents might want to consider what they would do if their child’s school temporarily closed because of flu. That happened in New York City, where St. Francis Preparatory School in Queens closed for a couple of days after eight students were found to have swine flu.  Don’t panic, but a little planning wouldn’t hurt.

How severe is swine flu?
The severity of cases in the current swine flu outbreak has varied widely. In Mexico, there have been deaths and other severe cases. Early cases in the U.S. have been mild. But that could change. The virus itself could change, either becoming more or less dangerous. Scientists are watching closely to see which way the new swine flu virus is heading — but health experts warn that flu viruses are notoriously hard to predict, as far as how and when they’ll change.

Why has the swine flu infection been deadlier in Mexico than in Global areas.?
It is unclear why U.S. cases have been milder compared to those in Mexico. Among the first 20 reported cases in the U.S., only one patient required hospitalization and that person has fully recovered. Medical researchers are actively investigating to learn more about the differences between the cases in Mexico and those in the U.S.

Have there been previous swine flu oubtreaks?
Yes. There was a swine flu outbreak at Fort Dix, N.J., in 1918 and in 1976 among military recruits. It lasted about a month and then went away as mysteriously as it appeared. As many as 240 people were infected; one died.

The swine flu that spread at Fort Dix was the H1N1 strain. That’s the same flu strain that caused the disastrous flu pandemic of 1918-1919, resulting in tens of millions of deaths.

Concern that a new H1N1 pandemic might return in winter 1976 led to a crash program to create a vaccine and vaccinate all Americans against swine flu. That vaccine program ran into all kinds of problems — not the least of which was public perception that the vaccine caused excessive rates of dangerous reactions. After more than 40 million people were vaccinated, the effort was abandoned.

As it turned out, there was no swine flu epidemic.

I was vaccinated against the 1976 swine flu virus. Am I still protected?
Probably not. The new swine flu virus is different from the 1976 virus. And it’s not clear whether a vaccine given more than 30 years ago would still be effective.

How many people have swine flu?
That’s a hard question to answer, because the figure is changing so quickly. If you want to keep track of U.S. cases that have been confirmed by lab tests and reported to the WHO,  If you’re looking for cases in other countries, visit the World Health Organization’s web site. And when you hear about large numbers of people who are ill, remember that lab tests may not yet have been done to confirm that they have swine flu. And there may be a little lag time before confirmed cases make it into the official tally.
The World Health Organization has not declared swine flu to be a pandemic. The WHO wants to learn more about the virus first and see how severe it is and how deeply it takes root.

But it takes more than a new virus spreading among humans to make a pandemic. The virus has to be able to spread efficiently from one person to another, and transmission has to be sustained over time. In addition, the virus has to spread geographically. but take more n more precautions. kindly read step by step precautions above.

CDC Advisors Make Recommendations for Use of Vaccine Against Novel H1N1

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) met today to make recommendations for use of vaccine against novel influenza A (H1N1). 

The committee met to develop recommendations on who should receive vaccine against novel influenza A (H1N1) when it becomes available, and to determine which groups of the population should be prioritized if the vaccine is initially available in extremely limited quantities.

The committee recommended the vaccination efforts focus on five key populations.  Vaccination efforts are designed to help reduce the impact and spread of novel H1N1. The key populations include those who are at higher risk of disease or complications, those who are likely to come in contact with novel H1N1, and those who could infect young infants. When vaccine is first available, the committee recommended that programs and providers try to vaccinate:

• pregnant women,
• people who live with or care for children younger than 6 months of age,
• health care and emergency medical services personnel,
• persons between the ages of 6 months through 24 years of age, and
• people from ages 25 through 64 years who are at higher risk for novel H1N1 because of chronic health disorders or compromised immune systems.

The groups listed above total approximately 159 million people in the United States.

The committee does not expect that there will be a shortage of novel H1N1 vaccine, but availability and demand can be unpredictable. There is some possibility that initially the vaccine will be available in limited quantities. In this setting, the committee recommended that the following groups receive the vaccine before others:

• pregnant women,
• people who live with or care for children younger than 6 months of age,
• health care and emergency medical services personnel with direct patient contact,
• children 6 months through 4 years of age, and
• children 5 through 18 years of age who have chronic medical conditions.

The committee recognized the need to assess supply and demand issues at the local level. The committee further recommended that once the demand for vaccine for these prioritized groups has been met at the local level, programs and providers should begin vaccinating everyone from ages 25 through 64 years. Current studies indicate the risk for infection among persons age 65 or older is less than the risk for younger age groups. Therefore, as vaccine supply and demand for vaccine among younger age groups is being met, programs and providers should offer vaccination to people over the age of 65.

The committee also stressed that people over the age of 65 receive the seasonal vaccine as soon as it is available. Even if novel H1N1 vaccine is initially only available in limited quantities, supply and availability will continue, so the committee stressed that programs and providers continue to vaccinate unimmunized patients and not keep vaccine in reserve for later administration of the second dose.

The novel H1N1 vaccine is not intended to replace the seasonal flu vaccine. It is intended to be used alongside seasonal flu vaccine to protect people.  Seasonal flu and novel H1N1 vaccines may be administered on the same day.

Issue in public Intrest by

by Rohit Sharma for Gyandotcom

Know Your Right’s to Vote before Vote.

Why should you vote?

India is the largest democracy in the world. The right to vote and more importantly the exercise of Vote by the eligible citizens is at the heart of every democracy. We, the people of India, through this exercise of our right to vote have the ultimate power to shape the destiny of our country by electing our representatives who run the Government and take decisions for the growth, development and benefit of all the citizens.

Sixty two years after winning independence, India waits to be free again. To be freed from criminals who have muscled their way into power. In 2004, about one in five MPs had criminal records, including some with charges of heinous crimes such as murder, rape, dacoity and kidnapping. This seriously tarnishes the image of honest and eminent leaders who are committed to building a greater India. It is time for every citizen of India to become a freedom fighter and unite to free India from the clutches of criminals. As citizens of a free nation, we appeal to all the political parties to refrain from giving tickets to persons with criminal backgrounds. And take an oath to free India from criminals forever.

if you wants to know the criminal record of any indian politicians please visit this site

http://www.nocriminals.org/

Who can vote?

All citizens of India who are 18 years of age or above as on 1st January of the year for which the electoral roll is prepared are entitled to be registered as a voter in the constituency where he or she ordinarily resides. Only persons who are of unsound mind and have been declared so by a competent court or disqualified due to Criminal Charges, ‘Corrupt Practices’ or offences relating to elections are not entitled to be registered in the electoral rolls.

What is an electoral roll?

An electoral roll is a list of all eligible citizens who are entitled to cast their vote in an election. The electoral rolls are prepared Assembly Constituency wise. An electoral roll for any Assembly Constituency is sub- divided into parts corresponding with the polling booths. The Election Commission of India has decided to generally have a maximum of 1200 electors per booth.  The polling booths are so set up that no voter should ordinarily travel more than 2 kms. To reach the polling booth. Normally, one part will correspond with one polling booth. To exercise your vote, the first and foremost requirement is that your name should be in the electoral roll. Without your name registered in the relevant part for the area where you ordinarily reside in the Assembly Constituency, you will not be allowed to exercise your Vote. Therefore, it is your duty to find out whether your name has been registered or not.

How to register?

The Election Commission prepares the electoral rolls through a process of intensive revision where house-to-house enumeration is done and electors residing in each house are registered by official enumerators who go physically from door-to-door to collect the information about electors. This process is done normally once in five years. Between two Intensive revisions, summary revisions are done every year during a specified period when persons who are left out of the electoral rolls are given an opportunity to register themselves by applying in Form-6. It is also expected from you to get your name deleted from the place where you earlier resided, and get it included at new place in case you have shifted. For this, on your part, it is sufficient that you file claim application in Form 6 before the Electoral Registration Officer of the new place  and in that application give the full address of your earlier place of residence. Short absence from place of residence does not debar one to continue his/her name in electoral roll. Similarly, deletions are carried out of electors who have died or who have shifted residence from one area to another outside the prescribed part of the electoral roll. You should note that you can be registered only at one place. Registration in more than one place is an offence.

During Intensive Revision of electoral rolls which normally takes place once in five years, a draft roll is prepared after house to house enumeration and published at every polling booth location for inviting claims and objections. Any eligible person can file claim in Form No. 6 for inclusion of his name in the roll or raise an objection to somebody’s name or for deletion of his or any other person’s name in Form No. 7.  Similarly if any particulars in the electoral roll are to be modified such as name, house number, middle name, last name, age, sex, epic number etc. a claim in Form No. 8 can be filed. In case any elector has changed his house from the polling area of one booth to other booth in the same Assembly Constituency he can file application in Form No. 8A for change/transposition from one electoral part to other part.

During Summary revision of electoral rolls which takes place every year, the existing electoral rolls are published at each polling booth locations to invite claims and objections for inclusion, deletion, modification and 3 transpositions. After due enquiry all the claims and objections are decided and a supplementary electoral roll is prepared and published. Even after the final publication of electoral rolls the process of continuous updation of electoral rolls goes on and the citizens are free to file any application for the addition, deletion, modification and transposition with the Electoral Registration Officer.

As per the law, your name can be registered upto the last date of filing nominations by candidates that has been notified by the Election Commission for any general election or bye-election  to an Assembly or Parliament. To enable the Electoral Registration Officer to take action on your application, you must apply at least ten days before the last date of making nominations as he has to mandatorily invite objections by giving a seven clear days notice before including your name in the roll. If you apply later than ten clear days before the last date for nominations your name may not be included for the Purposes of that particular election.

How to check your name in the electoral rolls and to find the polling station where you have to go to vote?

As an elector you should immediately check whether your name has been included in the electoral roll of the constituency where you reside or not.

You can find out this information from the Electoral Registration Officer of your area.  Electoral rolls in all major cities have now been displayed on official websites also.

Do you have an Electors’ Photo Identity Card (EPIC)?

The Election Commission of India has made voter identification mandatory at the time of poll. The electors have to identify themselves with either Electors Photo Identity Card  (EPIC) issued by the Commission or any other documentary proof as prescribed by the Commission.

Will possession of an EPIC alone entitle you to vote?

You should note that mere possession of an EPIC issued to you does not guarantee you your vote, because it is mandatory that your name should appear in the electoral roll.

Once you have found out that your name is there in the electoral roll and you also possess an identification document prescribed by the Election Commission (EPIC or others), you are entitled to vote.

Before you come to the polling booth, there are some other important aspects that you need to know as an elector and a conscientious citizen of the country.

What is the Disclosure by Candidates?

Recently the Election Commission of India has made it mandatory consequent upon a Judgment of Hon’ble Supreme Court that all candidates must file an affidavit along with their nomination form with details such as:-

ü      his/her criminal antecedents,

ü      his/her assets and liabilities and those of his/her spouse and        Dependents, and

ü      His/her educational background.

This has been done with a view that every citizen has a right to know about The candidates contesting an election and make an informed choice.

The Election Commission has directed all Returning Officers to display the copies of nomination papers and accompanying affidavits received during any day on his notice board immediately on receipt and make copies of these for distribution to the press and any  members of public who want this information, free of cost. Any citizen of the country can obtain copies of the nomination form and the affidavit filed by any candidate from the Returning Officer and it shall not be refused. As a voter you have every right to seek this information and get it.

The details of the dues owed by the candidates to the Government are published by giving an advertisement in the leading newspapers by the Returning Officer for the benefit of electors. Above measures help the electors make an informed choice about the

Candidate they are going to vote for.

What are the basic do’s and don’ts as polling day approaches?

As a voter you should also know the aspects that are considered as Corrupt practices or electoral offences:

ü      Offering or accepting money or any other gratification either to vote for or not to vote for a particular candidate.

ü      Inducement by way of liquor, feast, money in cash, gifts, etc. to vote for or not to vote for a particular candidate.

ü      Inducement to vote or not to vote for a particular candidate on the grounds of religion, caste, community, sectarian beliefs or place of birth.

ü      Threat to an elector of ex-communication if he votes for or against a particular candidate.

ü      Offer of free conveyance to any elector to go to or from any polling station.

What is the process of voting? How do you go about it?

The poll date and hours are fixed by the Election Commission of India and they are well publicized before all elections.

When you reach the polling station, entry will be regulated by queues.

There will be separate queues for men and women voters and the physically handicapped persons. The persons who enforce the queues will allow 3-4 voters into the polling station at a time. Physically handicapped voters and women voters with babies in arm will be given precedence over the other voters in the queue.

Stage 1:  When you enter the polling station, you will go to the First Polling Officer who is in-charge of the marked copy of the electoral roll and responsible for identification of electors. You should keep your identity document ready to show to the First Polling Officer. You can also show to him the unofficial identity slip giving your particulars. However, you should note that unofficial identity slip only helps in locating your name in the electoral roll but is not a guarantee of your identification. The First Polling Officer will then call out your name and serial number so that the polling agents become aware of your presence and your identity is not challenged.

Stage 2:  Thereafter, if your identity is not challenged, you will proceed to the Second Polling Officer who will mark your left forefinger with the indelible ink. Thereafter, he will proceed to record your serial number in the electoral roll in the Register of Voters.  Once this is recorded, you are to sign in the appropriate column in the Register of Voters. If a voter cannot sign, his/her thumb impression will be obtained. The Second Polling Officer will then give you a signed voter’s slip which will record your serial number in the register of voters and your serial number in the electoral roll.

Stage 3:  You will then proceed to the Third Polling Officer who will take the voter’s slip issued to you by the Second Polling Officer. The Third Polling Officer will press the “Ballot” button on the Control Unit of voting machine and direct you to the voting compartment where you will record your vote on the balloting unit of the voting machine. Please note that each voter will proceed to the voting compartment in exactly the same sequence in which his/her serial number is recorded in the voters’ register.

Stage 4:  Voting Procedure.

• Inside the voting compartment, you are to press the blue candidate button

on the Balloting Unit against the name and symbol of the candidate of your

choice.

• Press the button only once.

• On the candidate button being pressed, the red lamp will glow against the

Name and symbol of that candidate.

• There will also be a beep sound heard to indicate that your vote has been

Recorded and the Busy lamp goes off in the Control Unit.

• This process is repeated for other voters till end of the poll.

You must remember that secrecy of voting is important. Every elector is expected to maintain the secrecy of voting and in case of failure to maintain secrecy the elector may not be permitted to vote. Any person, who violates the secrecy, will be booked for an offence under Section 128 of Representation of People Act, 1951. You should, therefore, not disclose to any person who you have voted for. Similarly, if any election official attempts to obtain information on who you have voted for, it will amount to an offence committed by that official. Photography of a voter casting vote is prohibited. It may also be noted that no polling official or agent can come inside the voting compartment under   7 the pretext of helping you to vote.  You can, however, be permitted to take a companion of not less than 18 years with you for recording your vote, if  for any physical infirmity you require such assistance.

You can decline to cast your vote at the last stage?

The law enables a voter to decline casting his vote at the last stage. If you decide not to cast your vote after having signed on the Register of Voters and after having received the voters’ slip from the Second Polling Officer, you must inform the Presiding Officer immediately. He will then take back the voters’ slip from you and proceed to record in the remarks column of the Register of Voters that you have declined to exercise your Vote and you will be required to put your signature under such entry. After this is done, you can leave the polling station without proceeding to the Voting Compartment.

What happens when your vote is challenged?

In case your identity as a voter is challenged by a polling agent of any candidate, on the ground that you are not the person whose name is listed on the rolls, the Presiding Officer will ask the challenger to give evidence in proof, of his challenge. Similarly, he will ask you for proof of your identity. You can use your EPIC or any other supporting document like Passport, Ration card etc. for this purpose. If the challenge is not established, you will be allowed to vote. However, if challenge is established, you will be debarred from voting and handed over to the police with a written complaint by the Presiding Officer.

What happens if someone else has cast the vote in your name?

If the First Polling Officer tells you on arrival inside the polling station that your vote has already been cast, bring this to the attention of the Presiding Officer immediately. The law allows you to cast a Tendered Vote. A Tendered Ballot Paper, as per Rule 49P of the Conduct of Elections Rules, will be given to you and you will be required to sign your name on the list of tendered votes. A tendered ballot paper is the same as the ballot paper displayed on the balloting unit, except that it shall be endorsed on the back, with the words, “Tendered Ballot Paper” either stamped by the Returning or Written by the Presiding Officer at the time of issuing it. After marking your choice of candidate with the help of Arrow Cross Mark rubber stamp you should hand over the tendered ballot paper to the Presiding Officer, who will keep it in a separate cover. Please note that in such case, you will not cast your vote on the EVM (Electronic Voting Machine).

What are the grievance redressal mechanisms available to you?

If you have any grievance in regard to electoral roll, Electors Photo

Identity Card or any other election related matter you may approach following

Officers:-

Chief Electoral Officer—————- At the State Level

District Election Officer—————At the District Level

Returning Officer———————–At the Constituency Level

Assistant Returning Officer———–At Taluka/Tahsil Level

Electoral Registration Officer———- At the Constituency Level

Presiding Officer———————–At Polling Station

Zonal Officer     ————————For a group of poling stations

(Detailed addresses etc. to be provided by the CEO)

During every election, the Commission appoints Observers who are senior civil service officers from outside the state. If you have any grievances or problems, you should approach them.

As an Eligible Intelligent Responsible Indian Do you know about your Candidate?

Ans:-Maximum people dont know

As an eligible intelligent responsible voter, you should know your candidates before you vote.

Education – What is their qualification?

Personal Assets – What is their current asset value?

Criminal Background – Do they have criminal records against them?

Equipped with this information you can make an informed choice and vote for a better candidate and contribute towards good governance. The results will not be immediate but we should start cleansing now to achieve it at the highest level.

Did you know that there is a system in our constitution, as per the 1969 act, in section “49-O” that a person can go to the polling booth, confirm his identity, get his finger marked and convey the presiding election officer that he doesn’t want to vote anyone!

Yes such a feature is available, but obviously these seemingly notorious leaders have never disclosed it. This is called “49-O”. Why should you go and say “I VOTE NOBODY”… because, in a ward, if a candidate wins, say by 123 votes, and that Particular ward has received “49-O” votes more than 123, then that polling will be cancelled and will have to be re-polled. Not only that, but the candidature of the contestants will be removed and they cannot contest the re-polling, since people had already expressed their decision on them. This would bring fear into parties and hence look for genuine candidates for their parties for election. This would change the way; of our whole political system… it is seemingly surprising why the election commission has not revealed such a feature to the public.

The Truth about 49-O:

If an elector, after his electoral roll number has been duly entered in the register of voters in Form-17A and has put his signature or thumb impression thereon as required under sub-rule (1) of rule 49L, decided not to record his vote, a remark to this effect shall be made against the said entry in Form 17A by the presiding officer and the signature or thumb impression of the elector shall be obtained against such remark.
This Infers that in no case will there be a re polling in the said constituency, however the negative/neutral vote is registered and counted so as to cross check on the total number of votes polled. VoteIndia.in encourages Voters to cast a protest vote incase they feel there is no right candidate to vote for.

Here is what the Election Commission has to say on NEGATIVE / NEUTRAL VOTING:

The Commission has received proposals from a very large number of individuals and organizations that there should be a provision enabling a voter to reject all the candidates in the constituency if he does not find them suitable. In the voting using the conventional ballot paper and ballot boxes, an elector can drop the ballot paper without marking his vote against any of the candidates, if he chooses so. However, in the voting using the Electronic Voting Machines, such a facility is not available to the voter. Although, Rule 49 O of the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961 provides that an elector may refuse to vote after he has been identified and necessary entries made in the Register of Electors and the marked copy of the electoral roll, the secrecy of voting is not protected here inasmuch as the polling officials and the polling agents in the polling station get to know about the decision of such a voter.

The Commission recommends that the law should be amended to specifically provide for negative / neutral voting. For this purpose, Rules 22 and 49B of the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961 may be suitably amended adding a provision that in the ballot paper and the particulars on the ballot unit, in the column relating to names of candidates, after the entry relating to the last candidate, there shall be a column ìNone of the above, to enable a voter to reject all the candidates, if he chooses so. Such a proposal was earlier made by the Commission in 2001 (vide letter dated 10.12.2001).

(A petition by the People  Union for Civil Liberties seeking such a provision filed at the time of the recent general elections is pending before the Honíble Supreme Court)

Issued and Published in Public Interest by Gyandotcom.

those same features characterize large predatory bony fishes, such as tuna and billfishes, that are currently in decline and at risk of extinction themselves, said Matt Friedman, author of the study and a graduate student in evolutionary biology at the University of Chicago.

“The same thing is happening today to ecologically similar fishes,” he said. “The hardest hit species are consistently big predators.”

Studies of modern fishes demonstrate that large body size is linked to large prey size and low rates of population growth, while fast-closing jaws appear to be adaptations for capturing agile, evasive prey—in other words, other fishes. The fossil record provides some remarkable evidence supporting these estimates of function: fossil fishes with preserved stomach contents that record their last meals.

When an asteroid struck the earth at the end of the Cretaceous about 65 million years ago, the resultant impact clouded the earth in soot and smoke. This blocked photosynthesis on land and in the sea, undermined food chains at a rudimentary level, and led to the extinction of thousands of species of flora and fauna, including dinosaurs.

Scientists had speculated that during that interval large predatory fishes might have been more likely than other fishes to go extinct because they tended to have slowly increasing populations, live more spread out, take longer to mature, and occupy precarious positions at the tops of food chains. Today, ecologically similar fishes appear to be the least able to rebound from declining numbers due to overfishing.

To build the database he needed to test this prediction, Friedman traveled around the world measuring the body size and jaw bones of 249 genera of fossil fishes that lived during the late Cretaceous. These kinds of direct measurements are possible in fossil fishes because many are represented by complete, articulated individuals. This is unlike the fossil record of most other vertebrates, where bones, teeth and other parts of the skeleton are often scattered and found in isolation.

This study is the first to test this theory with hard data and to quantify the relationship between body size, jaw function and vulnerability of fishes during the Cretaceous extinction, according to Friedman.

“Anyway you sliced it, the data showed that if you were a big fish with a fast bite you were toast,” he said.

Ironically, today’s large fishes with fast bites evolved relatively shortly after the end-Cretaceous extinction, apparently filling the functional and ecological roles vacated by the victims of that mass extinction. Although the two groups of fishes are not related to each other, their fates may end up being similar.

The paper is called “Ecomorphological selectivity among marine teleost fishes during the end-Cretaceous extinction” and will appear in issue 13 of PNAS. In it, Friedman describes the results of his study as robust because the large-bodied, predatory fishes that are disproportionately devastated also have the best fossil records. “In other words, we can be convinced that these forms really do die off here, and that their disappearance can’t be chalked up to a lousy fossil record,” Friedman noted.

Nevertheless, fossil fishes are not well studied because paleontologists, as a group, tend to be drawn to other animals, such as dinosaurs. Therefore, many large-scale patterns of fish evolution remain unclear.

The fossil fishes included in the study are diverse in form, and range in length from about 20 feet to less than one inch.

“This study demonstrates that fossil datasets are germane to modern diversity and evolution by allowing us to calibrate what characteristics might relate to extinction vulnerability today,” Friedman said. “Echoes of the end-Cretaceous extinction reverberate 65 million years later.

Source: Matt friedman for Gyandotcom

Our universe extends staggeringly far beyond our own earthly environment. Trying to grasp the size in any meaningful way is bound to make your brain hurt. We can make analogies to at least understand a few of the relevant scales, but this can’t give us a complete picture all in one go. In the end, we must settle for an understanding of large numbers, aided by the tool of scientific notation. Modern astrophysicists don’t walk around with a deeply developed intuition for the vast scale of the universe—it’s too much for the human brain. But these scientists do walk around with a grasp of the relevant numbers involved. As an example, here are some of the numbers I carry in my head to understand the universe’s size: • A lecture hall is approximately 10 meters across, and light travels across it in about 30 nanoseconds. We will be using light, which travels at 300,000,000 meters per second to quantify distances. • The earth is 6378 km in radius, and light would travel seven times around the earth in one second if it could travel in a circle like this. • The moon is about one-quarter the diameter of the earth, and is 1.25 light-seconds away—corresponding to about 30 earth diameters to scale earth−moon distance • The sun is 109 times the diameter of the earth, and about 8 light-minutes away (this is 1 “Astronomical Unit,” or A.U., and is about 150 million km). • Jupiter is about 40 light-minutes from the sun (5 A.U.). • Pluto is about 40 A.U. from the sun, or about 5.5 light-hours out. • The next star is 4.5 light-years away—take a moment to appreciate this big jump! • The center of the Milky Way (our galaxy) is about 25,000 light-years away. A galaxy is a gravitation-ally bound collection of stars: islands of stars—many of which make up the universe. • Large galaxies like our own are about 100,000 light-years across. • The nearest external large galaxy is the Andromeda galaxy—about 2 million light-years away (20 galaxy diameters). • The nearest large cluster of galaxies (Virgo Cluster) is about 50 million light-years away. • The edge of the visible universe is about 13.7 billion light years away. 1As you can see, the range of scales is too huge to be described all at once by a single measure. We went from small fractions of a light-second (light crosses the lecture hall in 0.00000003 seconds, and can cross the United States of America. in about 0.01 seconds) to huge quantities (billions!) of light-years. In total, going from the lecture hall to the size of the visible Universe takes us through 25 orders-of-magnitude (factors of ten). At best our puny brains are capable of comprehending maybe 8 orders-of-magnitude directly (1 mm grain of sand to 100 km scale visible from mountain-tops). Outside this direct experience, we rely on the numbers to convey the relative scales. What Do We Know About the Beginning? What we see when we look into the universe today is the illusion that all galaxies are hurtling away from our own, as if we were sitting at the center of some momentous explosion. The farther the galaxy, the faster its apparent recession from us. This effect is seen in the wavelengths (colors) of light from distant galaxies. Wavelengths from receeding galaxies are shifted toward the red (“redshifted”) by a precisely measureable amount—analogous to the Doppler shift we hear in the pitch of an ambulance racing past. The farther the galaxy, the greater the redshift, and thus the faster it is moving away. As an aside, this expansion rate is characterized by the Hubble Constant, 70 km/s/Mpc. These strange units mean for every megaparsec (Mpc, or 3.26 million light-years) we go away, galaxies are receding by another 70 kilometers per second. There are two illusory aspects to this astounding observation (first recognized in the 1920’s). The first is that though we appear to be at the center of the expansion, we are not. Every galaxy would make the same claim. Think about it this way. We look at galaxy A 10 Mpc away, receding at 700 km/s. Straight beyond galaxy A is galaxy B, 20 Mpc away, receding at 1400 km/s (Figure 1). Imagine standing on a planet around a star in galaxy A. In one direction, you can look back and see our galaxy, the Milky Way. On the opposite side of the sky you see galaxy B. Both are 10 Mpc away, and both appear to move away from you at 700km/s. So on galaxy A, it also appears that all galaxies recede from you. Two good analogies help illustrate this concept. For the first, imagine galaxies drawn on the surface of a balloon, and the balloon being blown up. As the “fabric” of the balloon stretches, galaxies move farther away. The farther, the faster. To each, it appears to be at the center of the expansion. But there is no center (here we confine our thoughts to the surface of the balloon—unaware of the three-dimensional center of the spherical balloon we can see).The second analogy is that of a baking raisin bread. Now imagine the raisins to be galaxies, and the bread is space itself. Again, each raisin sees all others moving away from it, and the farther the raisin, the faster it appears to move away. But there really is no center (forget that the bread has edges, or that it’s in your oven). The second correction to the statement that “we see galaxies receding with an ever-increasing velocity as we go farther” is subtle. But the correct picture is not that galaxies are whizzing out into a pre-existing, empty space. The right way to look at it is that space itself is being created/expanded between the galaxies. The galaxies are simply along for the ride, being carried in the expanding space. Here, the raisin bread analogy is particularly useful. The raisins (galaxies) are not zooming through the bread (space), but rather the bread (space) itself is expanding. This picture ultimately agrees better with observation, and is consistent with the predictions of general relativity. Space itself is being “created” as the universe expands. It doesn’t take a great leap of imagination to consider that if space is expanding in all directions, it used to be smaller. Galaxies used to be closer. How far do we carry this back? We can make the bold statement that maybe we should carry it to the extreme—to a time when the whole universe was smaller than a grain of sand. This seemingly preposterous extrapolation is, surprisingly, supported by observations. If the universe were once this small, it would also have been so very hot that even protons and neutrons would have been evaporated into quarks. If we play this game—knowing what we do about particle physics from our accelerator experiments—we can predict the relative abundance of the light elements that would have frozen out of this quark soup as the universe expanded and cooled. This simple (in concept) game actually gets the story right! It predicts the abundances of hydrogen, helium, lithium, etc. that we see in the primordial gas clouds that still surround us. Other predictions likewise work with this scenario (cosmic 2From Milky Way (MW) perspective From galaxy A perspective MW A B MW A B 0 700 1400 0 700 −700 Figure 1: The same motions of the Milky Way, and two galaxies labled A and B. The frame on the left shows both galaxies receeding from MW, B traveling faster than A. From the perspective of galaxy A, both B and MW move away at the same speed. microwave background radiation, ages of oldest stars). This model of the beginning of our universe is called the Big Bang model, and has gained nearly universal (forgive the pun!) acceptance among scientists. How Big is the Universe, Really? This simple question has a somewhat complicated answer that may involve new ways of thinking, but we’ll try to get to the bottom of the issue. To start, I note that the universe is largely made up of space. By space I mean vacuum—emptiness—nothing. Though we have galaxies of stars littering our skies, even these have lots of empty space in them. On the whole, if you smeared out all the atoms in the universe uniformly, you would end up with less than one hydrogen atom per cubic meter. That’s sparse! Even in our locally dense galaxy (most of the universe is space between the galaxies), stars are like grains of sand several miles apart! Since the universe is mostly empty space, it is appropriate to talk about the nature and extent of theuniverse in terms of the nature and extent of space itself. Here is where things start to get weird. We allpicture space as being three-dimensional and flat. By flat, we mean Euclidean. By Euclidean, we mean thatall the properties of geometry we learned about in high school apply. These are statements like: parallellines remain parallel forever; the angles in a triangle add to 180◦; space is infinite in extent. Such statements appear to be valid in our daily experience.This picture of flat space formed the backdrop of physics throughout the Newtonian era. Einstein changed this when he suggested two radical ideas: 1. Time must be included in our description of space into a unified concept of space time. Time and space mean different things for observers moving with respect to each other, becoming inextricably mixed.This is the subject of special relativity. 2. Space-time may be curved—there is no requirement for flatness. What’s more, the presence of mass curves spacetime. This is the subject of general relativity. Is nothing sacred? Apparently not. These concepts truly re-shaped the way physicists think about space. Not surprisingly, the description of the nature of the universe (the size and shape of space) is profoundly impacted by this paradigm. In addition to local spacetime curvature due to masses (stars, galaxies) within the universe, there may be a global curvature that apples to the whole of the universe. It is next-to-impossible to imagine in your head what it would mean for all of three-dimensional space (actually, 4-dimensional spacetime) to be curved. B A C Figure 2: Ant experiments on a sphere: A) the straightest line possible—a great circle—comes back on itself; B) Initially parallel tracks eventually converge; C) A straight line triangle on a sphere has angles that add to more than 180◦, in this case 270◦. Curved into what? But we have some lower-dimensional analogies to help us appreciate what this might look like. 3.1 A Two-dimensional Analog Imagine you are an ant living on a basketball. You can only move around on the surface, so that you essentially live in a two-dimensional space. Another way to say this is simply that the basketball surface (texture notwithstanding) is a two-dimensional surface existing in our three-dimensional space. This third dimension allows us to see what the ant cannot. If the ant makes a smelly deposit on the surface and runs away in horror, it will ultimately come back on the surprise, though never deviating from a straight line. We call this straight line a great circle (see Figure 2A), because to our three-dimensional eyes, we can see that the path of the ant through three-dimensional space is a circle (like an equator). To the ant, the line was straight as could be. No matter what direction the ant chose to run in, the result would be the same as long as the ant kept to a straight line. So this space is finite: it does not go on forever. The next experiment the ant attempts is to walk parallel to another ant. They both start out side-by-side on the basketball’s “equator,” and agree to walk “north.” Once they decide this, they start out walkingparallel in the north direction, but agree not to look at each other—just their compasses. Some time later, they bump into each other. Each suspects the other of deviating, while knowing that they themselves did not. In fact, neither deviated from a straight line (Figure 2B). But Euclid’s relationships don’t hold on this curved space. Parallel straight lines will always converge on a sphere. In this case, the convergence would be at the “north pole.” (Take a look at how the lines of longitude converge at the north pole of a globe, despite starting out parallel at the equator and each representing perfectly “straight” great-circle paths.) The last experiment the frustrated ant tries is to verify that the three angles inside a triangle add to 180◦. The ant starts at the north pole, walks in a straight line south to the equator, turns right (90◦) to follow the equator, walks a quarter of the way around the equator, then turns right again (90◦) to head back to the north pole. On reaching the north pole, the ant finds that the angle that its current path makes to the original path from the pole is 90◦, so that the three interior angles of this “straight-line” triangle add to 270◦—much bigger than the expected result (Figure 2C). The lesson is that the rules of Euclidean geometry don’t hold on curved spaces. The analogy to our universe is as follows. If our universe has so-called positive curvature, then any straight line ultimately comes back on itself, parallel lines ultimately converge, and angles within a triangle add to something greater than 180◦. Now it should be pointed out that had the ant on the basketball performed the triangle (or parallel line) experiment over a very small and confined region of the basketball, Euclidean geometry would have appeared to work to a high degree of precision. By analogy, the earth looks pretty flat over small distances. We know that the universe is very large—because we see new and different stuff in every direction for a long way. So in our tiny local region, things look pretty flat. But is the large-scale universe curved? This 4Figure 3: Possible geometries of the universe, in two-dimensional analog. has been an open question in cosmology, and we’re finally gaining some resolution. 3.2 Types of Curved Universes To motivate more concretely the notion that the universe is curved, I mentioned above that Einstein’s theory of general relativity produces spacetime curvature—in fact, it produces positive curvature—like that of a closed sphere. So the question of “how much curvature” boils down to “how much matter is there in the universe?” We know that the universe is expanding, based on galaxy redshifts. Since matter is gravitationally attracted to itself, the presence of matter in the universe may be sufficient to slow—even halt and reverse—this expansion. In other words, the presence of mass applies brakes to the expansion. But is there enough matter present to halt the expansion? Enough to reverse it? In a universe that contains only gravitating matter and empty space, the question of the fate of the universe and the type of curvature are intimately related. A universe with more than enough matter in it to halt the expansion has enough matter to make it positively curved on the whole. This type of universe would wrap back onto itself. Like the ant traveling in a straight line and coming back to the same spot, so we would come back to earth if we flew a straight line in a rocket for a very, very long time. Other properties of positive curvature would also be present: parallel lines would eventually converge, and triangle angles would add to greater than 180◦ (the larger the triangle, the greater the deviation—like on the surface of the basketball). Besides these geometrical properties, this “closed” universe would ultimately turn back on itself and experience a Big Crunch when it all came back together. Figure 3 shows the possible geometries, with the closed geometry on top. On the other extreme, if the amount of matter in the universe is insufficient to halt the expansion, the resulting geometry has a net negative curvature. This is harder to visualize, but the properties are that it goes on indefinitely (you would not wrap back on yourself if traveling in this space), parallel lines now diverge, and triangle angles add to less than 180◦. The best visualization I can offer here is that of a Pringle’s potato chip: saddle-shaped. This kind of surface has all the right geometrical properties, if for instance an ant were to do similar experiments to what it did on the sphere. The only catch is that you have to imagine a Pringle of infinite extent (yum). The negatively curved universe is said to be “open,” as it is infinite in extent, and will never re-collapse. It will continue to expand forever. The existence of matter may slow down (decelerate) this expansion, but it will never be enough to stop it. Precariously balanced between these two extremes is a flat universe. A flat universe has just the right amount of matter to exactly balance the expansion, so that ultimately the universe’s expansion will exactly stop (as time marches toward infinity). In this case, there is no net curvature, and Euclidean geometry holds across the infinite extent of the universe. Though seemingly impossibly tuned to have just the right amount 5of matter (not a teaspoon more or less), this has been a favorite of theoretical cosmologists because they think this condition would have been automatically satisfied the way the universe started. If the universe is close to being flat, but not precisely so, then it has some net curvature, but this curvature may be hardly noticeable. This is analogous to saying that the effects of earth’s curved surface are not very noticeable over small scales (like on a soccer field), while the soccer ball is very noticeably curved. In otherwords, a universe that is positively curved, but very large, will appear pretty flat on the small part we can see. It is very difficult to unambiguously tell the difference between these scenarios through our observations of the universe—though we have been surprisingly successful at setting limits on this curvature using the CMB. Geometry Summarized If the universe is composed only of gravitating matter and the empty space in between, then the geometry of space—positive curvature, flat, or negative curvature—is intimately connected with the amount of matter in the universe. This is also then connected with its fate. A nice verbal relationship exists to sum this up: a positive-curvature universe is said to be closed (finite) and is both finite in spatial extent (wraps back onto itself) and in the time domain (will ultimately re-collapse). A negatively curved universe is said to be open, and extends infinitely in both time and space. The flat case is a special, limiting case of the open scenario—it too is infinite in extent and will go on forever in time, but only just so. The Universe As We See It In an effort to determine the matter density of the universe, and thus its ultimate fate and geometry, as-tronomers for many years pursued a measurement of the deceleration of the matter in the universe. The logic was that if any matter existed at all (and clearly it does), the net gravitational effect between all bodies in the universe would apply the brakes to the expansion, slowing down its rate. The effect is relatively small, and it took a very long time to be able to make any measurement. Finally, in the late 1990’s, two independent teams of physicists and astronomers had managed to make a measurement using the light from a special type of supernova (exploding star) thought to act as a “standard candle”—having the same intrinsic brightness no matter when and where in the universe it happened. The result they found was startling. The data thatstared them in the face proclaimed that the universe is actually accelerating presently! It’s as if the balloon is being blown up more rapidly today than yesterday. Nobody (well, practically nobody) had anticipated this possibility. But this provides an example of the triumph of measurement over theory. You can’t argue with measurement. (Well, you can, actually, and should. You should make sure the measurement is valid and that you aren’t being fooled by other effects that you have not yet considered. And believe me, this surprising data has been challenged extensively.) In a moment of severe whiplash in the astro physical community, we suddenly had a huge mystery on our hands. If the universe is accelerating, what’s pushing it apart? Why isn’t gravity working like we thought it should? These sorts of challenges crop up in science from time-to-time, forcing its practitioners to take a hard look at their fundamental assumptions. This is a very healthy process, and it gives me great hope in humanity that we, as humans, do not cling maniacally to a dearly held belief when new evidence points to the contrary. Lest you think that these revolutions “undo” any of the previous measurements and experience from the past, let me assure you that the entire body of measurement and observation stands. The revolution is on the side of theory, whose job it is to explain the collection of empirical data in a self-consistent way. These revolutions typically make it clear that we simply didn’t have the full theoretical picture, or that we can’t get away with an over-simplified view. Around the same time as the discovery of the universe’s acceleration, astrophysicists looking at the afterglow of the Big Bang (called the cosmic microwave background: CMB, or also the surface of last scattering) were intent on measuring the shape of our space. They could do this because they could predict in great detail what kinds of structures existed at this stage in the universe’s development, when it was 6only 380,000 years old. By structures I just mean temperature variations (departures from uniformity)—or “structure” in the density/temperature of the early plasma. They knew, in effect, how large the largest structures could have become in that time—in real units like meters! Given this, and also armed with the knowledge of how far the surface of last scattering is, the apparent angular size of these blobs on the sky then tells us what kind of geometry we live in. Are we drawing this long, skinny triangle on a positively-curved space, like a basketball, on a negative potato-chip, or in plain Euclidean flat space. The answer—much to the delight of many theorists—came out to be that space is flat. If we quantify this in terms of the amount of matter required to make for a flat universe, the answer came out to indicate the critical density within 2%. In other words, if the universe had too much stuff, it would have positive curvature. Too little stuff and it would have negative curvature. We appear to be in the “just right” scenario, to pretty high precision. A third leg of evidence supported both by measuring masses of huge clusters of galaxies, and also from secondary “structure” in the CMB indicates that the universe only has 30% of the gravitating matter necessary to flatten the universe. How could this be consistent with the previous CMB finding that we were within 2% of the magic value? The answer is in the subtle use of the word “gravitating” above. It turns out that 70% of the total mass-energy (i.e., stuff) in the universe is of a non-gravitating form. We call this “dark energy” because we can’t see it, it’s not matter, and we frankly have no idea what the stuff is. But it’s the stuff that is responsible for the acceleration of the universe—it’s pushing us apart. Thanks to astrophysical measurements, we now know exactly how much dark energy, dark matter, and ordinary matter exist in the universe. But we still don’t know what any of the “dark” stuff actually is. Ideas abound, but no one pays close attention to ideas unless they suggest additional tests or measurements that can support or refute them. What Does It All Mean? This is mind-blowing stuff, to be sure. We’re talking about the geometry of space, and suddenly we find out that it is indeed flat, but that there are constituents in the universe that we know very little about. It’s confusing, and may sound even absurd (more like fantasy or science fiction than science). But scientists are serious about this. It’s hard to drag along a skeptical bunch like scientists on a wild ride like this without an awful lot of experimental evidence. Many scientists are still uncomfortable with this surprising new landscape. But almost all acknowledge that we’re faced with striking measurements that will likely radically change our fundamental understanding of what makes up the universe. To talk concretely about the meaning of these observations, let me answer some common questions that always come up in mind: Is the universe infinite in extent? If the geometry of the universe is indeed flat, as we measure it to be, then yes: the universe goes on forever. This doesn’t mean that we can see the whole universe, though. We can only see about 13.7 billion light years away in any direction. So the universe is finite if we can only see so far, right? These are unrelated things. Because light travels at a finite