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ROHIT SHARMA

One of the more frequent means by which customers are defrauded is by cheque interception. On average, a cheque is handled by up to 20 people from the time you make it out to the time your branch pays it. This means that there are numerous opportunities for the cheque to be intercepted. Most commonly this happens when cheques are posted.

Another common way in which customers are defrauded is in accepting a cheque or bank deposit when selling goods. Often the cheque or the deposit turns out to be fraudulent and the seller is out of pocket. Sellers are advised never to release goods until they are certain that the payment is valid.

Always wait for the funds to be cleared before releasing goods, even if it seems to be a bank issued cheque. While the cheque may appear to be genuine, fraudsters have even gone so far as to print their own cheques. The cheque could also be stolen. Even if the cheque is genuine, there are certain circumstances when bank issued cheques will not be honoured.

A fake cheques scam estimated to the tune of Rs.52 crore has been unearthed in the State Bank of India’s (SBI) main branch in kanpur. Seven bank officers have been suspended, According to the official, the fraud, which was detected Tuesday evening, was being carried on with the active connivance of the branch officials. Most of the fake cheques were credited into the account of an influential petrol pump owner and one of his associates, who have reportedly fled the country.

“The suspended officials include an assistant general manager, two chief managers and some senior managers, who were suspected to be directly involved in pilfering the bank by crediting fake cheques into select accounts,” he said.

The Kanpur branch head and deputy general manager have been divested of the charge with immediate effect.

The scam was detected by SBI’s audit team in Hyderabad from which a special team had been sent here to this city, 80 km from state capital Lucknow.

A vigilance team from the Lucknow-based state head office was also sent to Kanpur.

While describing the case as the “biggest fraud in the Lucknow-Kanpur region in recent decades”, the bank official did not rule out the possibility of “more heads rolling” over the next few days.

Significantly, barely a few months back, a fake note racket involving SBI officials was discovered in a small SBI branch in Domariyaganj town on the India-Nepal border, about 200 km from Lucknow.

ATM fraud issues in the most part involve credit card fraud and debit card fraud. The ATM machine may be the ‘common purchase point’ (CPP) where analysis shows that a significant number of credit cards or debit cards were used genuinely in one specific location prior to detection of subsequent fraudulent transactions. Even when not the CPP, automated teller machines may be the mechanism used to convert compromised credit cards and debit cards into hard cash, so long as the credit card fraud or debit card fraud included compromise of the personal identification number (PIN).

ATM skimming is now common in most parts of the world that have a mature network of ATMs, self-service terminals and point of sale (POS) terminals that accept magnetic stripe based credit cards and debit cards. Most bank ATM security issues and ATM fraud issues involving ATM skimming are the result of criminals attaching an ATM skimmer to the ATM card reader slot. Europe has historically been one of the most targeted geographies for ATM skimming attacks, although the world-wide spread of such ATM skimming fraud has been, and continues to be significant.

ATM deposit fraud which includes both cash deposit fraud and cheque fraud (check fraud) at automated teller machines is one type of ATM fraud that is particularly common in the US where many banks have a culture of crediting and allowing drawings against the deposit prior to manual reconciliation and verification.

ATM hacking should really only be used to describe attacks against the internals of the ATMs software or the ATMs systems security but is commonly used to describe attacks against card processors and other components of the transaction processing network. The US  have experienced a number of high profile ‘ATM hack’ attacks against well known credit card and debit card processors. Some of the systems security breaches have included compromise of the PIN in addition to the card data, with subsequent fraudulent spend using cloned credit cards and cloned debit cards at ATMs.

Another ATM fraud issue is ATM card theft which includes credit card trapping and debit card trapping at ATMs. Originating in South America this type of ATM fraud has spread globally. Although somewhat replaced in terms of volume by ATM skimming incidents, a re-emergence of card trapping has been noticed in regions such as Europe where EMV Chip and PIN cards have increased in circulation.

ATM funds transfer fraud is prevalent in Asia. This ATM scam involves criminals tricking victims into using the automated teller machine to transfer money into the criminals account.

ATM security attacks involving physical attacks against the ATM security enclosure are widely spread. ATM explosive attacks although originating and not uncommon in Europe are more prevalent in Australia and South Africa.

ATM ram raid incidents also occur globally but are most prevalent in the US, perhaps partly due to the large number of ATMs deployed in soft-target locations such as convenience stores.

ATM security incidents involving a high degree of precision to gain access to the ATM security enclosure occur globally. The UK and Canada have experienced many such precision ATM security attacks in recent years.Never accept a faxed bank deposit slip as proof of payment. Amounts and details can easily be changed to reflect a higher value or that it is a cash deposit. Check with your bank first that the correct amount has been deposited and whether the deposit is cash or cheque. If it is a cheque deposit, wait until the cheque has been paid (usually this will take seven days) before you release goods.

What is card skimming?

‘Card skimming’ is the illegal copying of information from the magnetic strip of a credit or ATM card. It is a more direct version of a phishing scam.

The scammers try to steal your details so they can access your accounts. Once scammers have skimmed your card, they can create a fake or ‘cloned’ card with your details on it. The scammer is then able to run up charges on your account.

Card skimming is also a way for scammers to steal your identity (your personal details) and use it to commit identity fraud. By stealing your personal details and account numbers the scammer may be able to borrow money or take out loans in your name.
Warning signs

* A shop assistant takes your card out of your sight in order to process your transaction.
* You are asked to swipe your card through more than one machine.
* You see a shop assistant swipe the card through a different machine to the one you used.
* You notice something suspicious about the card slot on an ATM (e.g. an attached device).
* You notice unusual or unauthorized transactions on your account or credit card statement.
Protect yourself from card skimming
* Keep your credit card and ATM cards safe. Do not share your personal identity number (PIN) with anyone. Do not keep any written copy of your PIN with the card.
* Check your bank account and credit card statements when you get them. If you see a transaction you cannot explain, report it to your credit union or bank.
* Choose passwords that would be difficult for anyone else to guess.

As well as following these specific tips, find out how to protect yourself from all sorts of other scams.
Do your homework

If you are using an ATM, take the time to check that there is nothing suspicious about the machine.

Ask yourself if you trust the person or trader who you are handing your card over to. If a shop assistant looks like they are going to take your card out of your sight, ask if it is really necessary.

If an ATM looks suspicious, do not use it and alert the ATM owner.

If you are in a shop and the assistant wants to swipe your card out of your sight, or in a second machine, you should ask for your card back straight away and either pay with a cheque or cash, or not make the purchase.

Now how to use ATM in Secure Way. Check it out

#1

First of all locate an ATM which you wan to use. They can commonly be found either on the outside walls of banks (inbuilt ATMs) or in convenience and department stores (freestanding ATMs). In terms of security they are similar because of the fact that freestanding machines are more closely watched and are in more public places. Bank ATMs are more difficult to tamper with and are regularly checked by the bank, however they are more often in secluded areas where thieves can take their time to work on them.
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Step 2

Look around the immediate area where the ATM is located for security cameras. Thieves are much less likely to try to target an ATM if it is being watched by a camera. similarly if the machine is in a place with constant attention, such as a busy shopping mall, thieves are less likely to strike.
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Step 3

When approaching the machine, look closely at the front of the card slot. If this has been burned and melted somewhat, of if the slot protrudes more than it usually would then a cloning device may have been fitted. Many devices for cloning cards fit over the existing slot, so if the colors of these parts are slightly different in color to the rest of the machine, this is also something to look out for.
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Step 4

If the ATM look different to the last time that you used it, then look at the new pieces, as they might contain a cameras used to recording pin numbers, These cameras are often hidden in either plastic panels which are fitted over the original or in ordinary looking pamphlet holders on the side of the ATM. Real ranks pamphlet holders are always located to the side of the machine altogether rather than in a position that could be used for recording pin numbers.
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Step 5

Contact your card provider if you suspect any ATM which you have seen has been tampered with. As an extra precaution, using a smart card is also a good idea These cards have a chip built into them and so are much harder for thieves to read. Because of this they are often impervious to most kinds of fraudulent card reader as the technology needed to read this chip is fairly large and bulky, and cannot easily be hidden on the outside of an ATM.

ATM skimmers are devices that thieves install on ATM machines to steal the financial information of others. Sometimes there is also a tiny camera installed that will record the user’s pin number. The criminals that use these devices are also called skimmers. Here are some Tips you can do to protect yourself from ATM skimmers.
#1

Learn to recognize a skimmer when you see one. If you see wires poking out, a scanner that does not seem secure, multiple scanning devices, or a sticker that says scan here first, do not use the machine.
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Step 2

Do not use a machine if someone offers to help you with it. Often the criminals who install skimmers stay nearby and “assist” users with their transaction. They may pose as another customer, or a technician working on the machine.
#
Step 3

Be secretive when entering your pin number. Cover the keys with one hand in case someone is looking over your shoulder, or there is a hidden camera nearby.
#
Step 4

Make it a habit of using the same ATM machine as often as possible. If you do this you will be familiar with the ATM machine and will be able to spot if someone has installed a device or tampered with the ATM machine.
#
Step 5

Use ATM machines where video cameras are installed so that criminals will have a harder time installing skimmers.
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Step 6

Check the balance on your ATM card often so that if someone steals your information, you can minimize the damage. The faster you respond to ATM card theft, the better your chance is that the bank will fully reimburse you.

Some sensible safety tips:

* The person writing out a cheque should always attempt to use a ballpoint pen instead of making use of pens with more erasable inks like fountain pens or felt tip pens.
* To prevent unauthorised additions and/or alterations, commence all writing as close as possible to the left-hand margin, leaving no gaps and drawing a line through unused spaces.
* Any cheques that the account holder does not wish to be cashed should be crossed and, to ensure that a cheque is paid into the intended beneficiary’s account, the cheque should be marked with the words “Not Transferable” between two transverse lines.
* The customer should take responsibility for keeping his/her chequebook in a safe place to prevent unauthorised use.
* The customer should always keep his chequebook separate from his credit cards, ATM cards or any other document that bears his signature. If a thief gets hold of your chequebook, but does not have a sample of your signature, a forged signature will probably not resemble yours.
* All paid cheques that are returned with your bank statements should be kept in a safe place because they contain your signature. Fraudsters may even try to re-use these cheques.
* The customer should make a habit of doing monthly reconciliations on the cheques that were issued on his/her account.
* Regular recons should be done on all unused cheques in a chequebook against counterfoil or carbon copy records.
* The customer should report a stolen chequebook to his/her account holding or nearest FNB branch as soon as he/she detects that the chequebook is missing. There is also the ability to stop a cheque online via FNB Internet Banking.
* The posting of cheques should be avoided and, should it be necessary, cheques should be placed in non-transparent or dark envelopes without any staples / paper clips, which can be felt through the envelope.
* Never have any cheques lying around that have not been completed or fully signed.
* Many alternative payment methods exist that are safe and convenient and can even save on bank charges. These alternatives include Visa Cheque Cards, Visa Electron debit cards, Internet, Telephone and Cellphone Banking, ATM payments, debit orders and future dated payments.

Ashish Ravindranathan the 18-year-old IIT-Bombay first-year student has allegedly duped 25 credit card-holders and made a whopping Rs 6.5 lakh in just six months. Ashish completed studies at Delhi Public School in Ahmedabad in 2008, with 90% marks and went on to IIT-Bombay.

Ashish Ravindranathan modus operandi

Ashish used to pose as a bank executive, Ashish got credit card details from customers. He then used the data to book air tickets and buy laptops. He had tied up with a travel agent to cancel the tickets and share the booty, while the laptops he sold across the country at a discount. Every day, Ashish would call 50-100 credit card holders, offering to issue credit cards. He would then get details of credit cards that they already had. Some gullible customers fell for his ploy and even parted with the critical CVV number.

Ashish Ravindranathan was operating since October last year, said crime branch officers. It was like a movie the way he was trapped – disguised as gardeners and security guards, police trailed him to some of his favourite haunts in Ahmedabad to catch him red-handed as he made calls to credit card holders, posing as a representative of Barclays Bank.

A resident of Hyderabad – his father works in the US. Ashish lives with his mother and younger sister and the family is very comfortable financially. Ashish allegedly told the cops that he had got used to lavish spending and wanted to make quick money on the sly.

how all this Techniques used ,we start with a credit card cloning technique used by conmens.

Credit card cloning, or “skimming” as it is sometimes called, is a new technique whereby someone obtains your credit card details, copies them onto a bogus card and begins using the credit card. While credit card theft itself is not new, the manner in which the information is stolen is.

The first step is to recruit an individual willing to participate in the scheme. Bartenders, wait staff or shop assistants are often prime targets because of the sheer volume of credit cards they handle.

Recruits are given a pocketsize device with a scanning slot, something that resembles a pager and can be worn on a belt. They are instructed to swipe customers’ credit cards through the device. Because the process takes only a few seconds it can be done easily and inconspicuously without the customer or another employee noticing.

Swiping the credit card through the device copies the information held on the magnetic strip into memory. That information can subsequently be copied to a counterfeit card, complete with security holograms.

Alternatively, the information can be used to overwrite a stolen credit card which has become too hot to handle.

Do not underestimate the size of this problem. In the U.K. alone an astonishing $200m was spent with cloned credit cards in 2000. That’s over $500,000 every single day!

Finally Tips & Warnings
DO NOT REVEAL YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION OR ANY RELEVANT INFORMATION TO ANY KNOWN OR UNKNOWN PERSON.
*
If you suspect any problems with the ATM machines, do not use it and report it to the bank or establishment where it is installed.
*
If you see suspicious looking people around the ATM machine, do not use it.

GUARD YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION.
Be careful with giving out your personal information. Never give anyone your information for a reason you don’t understand or are not comfortable with. Whenever possible, request to use other types of identification.

**Additionally, never carry around your social security card,Passport,Voters Id card,. Always keep it in a secure, private place.
#
Step 2

PROTECT YOUR E- MAIL,Post mailers,Telephone bills,Electricity bills,credit card recipts,credit card bills.
To keep a thief from stealing personal information about you by snooping through your trash or recycling bin, protect your all bills: Always tear or shred your charge receipts, credit applications, insurance forms, bank statements, expired charge cards, and preapproved credit offers. Additionally, put all outgoing mail in mailboxes or at your local post office and promptly take your mail from your mailbox after it’s delivered. If you’re going on vacation, call your post office to request a vacation hold.
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Step 3

PROTECT YOUR CREDIT CARDS.
Keep the number of cards you carry in your wallet to a minimum. If you lose a card, contact the fraud division of your credit card company. If you apply for a new card and it doesn’t come in a reasonable amount of time, contact the card issuer. Watch cashiers whenever you give them your card for a purchase. Whenever you receive a new card, sign it in permanent ink and activate it immediately.
In addition, pay attention to your credit card billing cycles. Contact creditors if your bills arrive late or not at all. Missing bills could mean an identity thief has taken over your credit card account and changed the billing address.
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Step 4

PROTECT YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION AT HOME.
Make sure you keep all personal information about you in a secure place in your home especially if you are having work done, employ outside help, or live with a roommate.
#
Step 5

PROTECT YOUR PERSONAL INFORMATION AT WORK.
Verify that your personal information is kept in a secure location and is only accessible to employees with a legitimate reason to review it.
#
Step 6

BE CAREFUL WITH PASSWORDS AND PINS.
In general, it’s best to memorize passwords and personal identification numbers instead of carrying them with you. Avoid using obvious or easily available information such as: your name or birth date, your mother’s maiden name, the last 4 digits of your SSN or phone number, or a series of consecutive numbers or letters.
#
Step 7

MONITOR YOUR CREDIT REPORT.
To guard against identity theft, check your credit report regularly to ensure that the information it contains is true and accurate. Report any suspicious looking information to the credit agency.
#
Step 8

BE VIGILANT!
But if you ever suspect that you might be the victim of possible identity theft, you can place an Initial 90 day Fraud Alert by calling any of the 3 national credit reporting agencies: Equifax, TransUnion, or Experian. The agency that accepts your request will notify the other 2 agencies, and will add the alert to your file or request additional information. You will receive a confirmation when the alert is added to your file.

Protect yourself from credit card scams

* NEVER send money, or give credit card or online account details to anyone you do not know and trust.
* Check your bank account and credit card statements when you get them. If you see a transaction you cannot explain, report it to your credit union or bank.
* Keep your credit card and ATM cards safe. Do not share your personal identity number (PIN) with anyone. Do not keep any written copy of your PIN with the card.
* Choose passwords that would be difficult for anyone else to guess.
* Try to avoid using public computers (at libraries or internet cafes) to do your internet banking.
* Do not use software on your computer that auto-completes online forms. This can give internet scammers easy access to your personal and credit card details.
* Do not give out your personal, credit card or online account details over the phone unless you made the call and the phone number came from a trusted source.
* Never send your personal, credit card or online account details through an email.
If you are buying something over the telephone or internet and want to use your credit card, make sure you know and trust the other party. If you want to provide your credit card details to a telemarketer, take their name and call them back on a phone number you find independently (i.e., not a number they give to you).

Check over your credit card and bank account statements as soon as you get them so that if anybody is using your account without your permission you can tell your bank.

Whenever you want to give out your credit card details, ask yourself if it is safe to do so. If you are very careful with your credit card and PIN, you can greatly reduce the chances of your credit card details ending up with a scammer.

So how do you protect yourself? You know the answer.

by Rohit Sharma for Gyandotcom

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जी हां ये है झांसी की रानी की 1850 मैं खींची गई मूल तस्वीर, जिसे सन 1850 में अंग्रेज फोटोग्राफर हॉफमैन ने लिया था। पिछले दिनों विश्व फोटोग्राफी दिवस यानि 19 अगस्त को पद्मश्री वामन ठाकरे द्वारा खींचे गए छायाचित्रों, कैनवास पे उकेरे चित्रों, लेखन कार्य और अन्य कलाकृतियों की प्रदर्शनी का आयोजन भोपाल में किया गया था। इस प्रदर्शनी में उनके विशेष आग्रह पे अहमदाबाद के एक एंटिक संग्रहकर्ता ने यह छायाचित्र भेजा था।

Communication link with Chandrayaan-1 broke on Saturday 29-8-2009

India’s moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, came to an abrupt end today after communication link with the spacecraft snapped. The spacecraft, which has 11 instruments on board including six from overseas, will now continue to orbit the moon and may eventually taste the lunar dust. Launched on October 22 last year, it was expected to orbit the moon for two years.

“We lost communication link with the spacecraft for the first time in the wee hours of Saturday. Attempts to re-establish contact have been futile. The mission is as good as lost,” Indian Space Research Organisation Director S Satish said. “We may have to abandon the spacecraft if we are not able to establish radio contact with it again,” he added. “The mission is definitely over. We have lost contact with the spacecraft,” Chandrayaan-1 Project Director M Annadurai told to gyandotcom.

The problem surfaced at 0130 hrs when ISRO suddenly lost radio contact with the spacecraft. Since then it has neither been able to receive nor send any data to the spacecraft. The Deep Space Network at Byalalu near Bangalore received data from Chandrayaan-1 up to 0025 hrs. A detailed review of the telemetry data received from the spacecraft is in progress and health of the spacecraft subsystems is being analysed, said a statement from ISRO.

The Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota. The project cost was around Rs 390 crore. The 1,380 kg spacecraft has completed 312 days in space and has made over 3,400 orbits around the moon. It has provided large volume of data from sophisticated sensors, and has met most of the scientific objectives of the mission.

ISRO had said last month that Chandrayaan-1 had sent more than 70,000 images of the lunar surface which provide breathtaking views of lunar mountains and craters, especially craters in the permanently shadowed areas of the moon’s polar region. It was also collecting valuable data pertaining to the chemical and mineral content of earth’s satellite. “It ( Chandrayaan-1) has done its job technically…100 per cent. Scientifically also, it has done 90-95 percent of its job,” PTI quoted Annadurai as saying.

However, in July, Chandrayaan-1 had developed a malfunction that put some experiments in jeopardy – it had lost a vital sensor. ISRO Chairman G Madhavan Nair had said that scientists had worked around the problem and patched two other instruments to help the spacecraft to the desired locations.

It was then that he had indicated that the life of Chandrayaan-1 may be reduced.

Still, on August 21, ISRO and NASA performed a unique joint experiment that the Indian space agency said could yield additional information on the possible existence of ice in a permanently shadowed crater near the North pole of the moon.

The idea of undertaking an Indian scientific mission to Moon was first mooted in a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1999 that was followed up by discussions in the Astronautical Society of India in 2000.

But it was only in November 2003 that the government approved ISRO’s proposal for the first Indian Moon Mission called Chandrayaan-1.

The government had also announced its plans to launch Chandrayaan-2, the second unmanned lunar exploration mission proposed by ISRO, at a cost of around Rs 450 crore.

The mission will include a lunar orbiter as well as a lander/rover.

However, the abrupt end of Chandrayyan-1 may now raise doubts about its proposed launch in 2012.

“Radio contact with Chandrayaan-I spacecraft was abruptly lost at 1.30 a.m. (IST) on August 29, 2009. The Deep Space Network at Byalalu near Bangalore received data from [it] during the previous orbit up to 12.25 a.m. (IST),” the agency said in a short statement.

Senior officials connected with the Rs 380-crore lunar orbiter mission were not immediately available to say what had gone wrong. The statement said telemetry data received from the spacecraft were being reviewed and the health of the spacecraft subsystems was being assessed.

Mr S. Satish, Director, Publicity and Public Relations, said: “We are able to neither send commands nor receive any data from the spacecraft.” He said the spacecraft did not show any recent sign of deterioration.

Asked if this was the end of the mission and about the fate of the spacecraft, he said: “As we have lost contact with the spacecraft, we do not know what has happened to it.”

The timing of the announcement of Chandrayaan-1 is ironical. ISRO, along with the Astronautical Society of India, is hosting a five-day international conference on low-cost planetary mission in Goa, where 40 overseas participants are expected. ISRO’s Chairman and Secretary of the Department of Space, Mr G. Madhavan Nair, is also the President of ASI.

EARLY PROBLEMS

Chandrayaan-I was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, on October 22, 2008. It was built for a life of two years and was to circle Moon pole to pole from a distance of 100 km to map its surface and look for water and vital minerals. The first signs of trouble started showing within months, although ISRO acknowledged it only three months later.

On May 19, ISRO doubled the orbiting distance to 200 km, explaining that this was to save the instruments from the intense heat of radiation from Moon’s surface. Again, on July 17, Mr Nair told newspersons that the two onboard star-tracking sensors had failed in April and the lunar craft was facing an orientation problem.

It had been stabilised by an alternative mode with gyroscopes. This did not mean the craft was crippled or dying, he said.

Mr Nair had also said all other instruments were functioning well but there was concern about the High Energy X-ray Spectrometer or HEX, which may have been hit by radiation. HEX is meant to detect water, uranium and thorium. “A complex mission like this can encounter unexpected problems,” was the refrain of senior officials.

On the plus side, it had achieved most of the scientific objectives, including dropping the Tricolour on to lunar surface on November 14 last and the 3D lunar surface mapping, he had said.

Until Saturday, the spacecraft completed 312 days in orbit, made over 3,400 orbits around Moon and provided a large volume of data.

It carried 11 sophisticated sensors from ISRO and five agencies – including the Terrain Mapping Camera, Hyper-spectral Imager and the Moon Mineralogy Mapper. ISRO has at least one more lunar mission in the pipeline for 2012-13 and has teamed up with Russia for Chandrayaan-2.

however On Aug. 20, 2009 last week NASA and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)  attempt a novel joint experiment that could yield more information on whether ice exists in a permanently shadowed crater near the north pole of the moon. Currently the ISRO’s Chandrayaan-1 and NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft are orbiting the moon.  While LRO is in its commissioning phase the two spacecraft pass close enough to each other when they are over the lunar north pole to attempt a unique experiment.  Both spacecraft are equipped with a NASA Miniature Radio Frequency (RF) instrument that functions as a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), known as Mini-SAR on Chandrayaan-1 and Mini-RF on LRO.  The experiment uses both radars to point at Erlanger Crater at the same time.

Normally the Mini-RF Instrument sends radio pulses to the moon and precisely records the radio echoes that bounce straight back from the surface, along with their timing and frequency.  From these data scientists can build images of the moon that not only show areas they otherwise couldn’t see, such as the permanently-shadowed areas near the lunar poles, but also contain information on the physical nature of the surface.

For the Bi-Static experiment the Mini-SAR on Chandrayaan-1 performs its normal SAR imaging (transmitting and receiving) while the Mini-RF is set to receive only.  The two instruments look at the same location from different angles.  Comparing the signal that bounces straight back to Chandrayaan with the signal that bounces at a slight angle to LRO provides unique information about the surface.

Arecibo Radiotelescope Puerto Rico – Low resolution Earth-based radar image of the North Pole of the Moon, showing the position of the crater Erlanger (arrow). Radar image (70 cm wavelength).

Stewart Nozette, Mini-RF principal investigator from the Universities Space Research Association’s Lunar and Planetary Institute, said, “An extraordinary effort was made by the whole NASA team working with ISRO to make this happen”

While this coordination sounds easy, this experiment is extremely challenging because both spacecraft are traveling at about 1.6 km per second and will be looking at an area on the ground about 18 km across.  Due to the extreme speeds and the small point of interest, NASA and ISRO need to obtain and share information about the location and pointing of both spacecraft.  The Bi-Static experiment requires extensive tracking by ground stations of NASA’s Deep Space Network, the Applied Physics Laboratory, and ISRO.

Even with the considerable planning and coordination between the U.S. and India the two instrument beams may not overlap, or may miss the desired location.  Even without hitting the exact location Scientists may still be able to use the Bi-Static information to further knowledge already received from both instruments.

“The international coordination and cooperation between the two agencies for this experiment is an excellent opportunity to demonstrate future cooperation between NASA and ISRO, “says Jason Crusan, program executive for the Mini-RF program, from NASA’s Space Operations Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C.

ISRO/NASA/JHUAPL/LPI – Mosaic of Mini-SAR image strips of the north polar area, showing the crater Erlanger, just south of the crater Peary. North Pole is in the direction of left top, out of frame. Mini-SAR radar image, Chandrayaan-1 mission.

“In the last few years we have seen a renaissance in international interest and cooperation in the study of the moon” says Gordon Johnson, program executive for the LRO, from NASA’s Exploration Systems Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C.  “As LRO completes its commissioning phase, we look forward to LRO’s contribution to this international effort.”

LRO was launched June 18, 2009. Its objectives are to scout for safe landing sites, locate potential resources, characterize the radiation environment, and demonstrate new technology. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. built and manages the mission for NASA’S Exploration Systems Mission Directorate in Washington. LRO is a NASA mission with international participation from the Institute for Space Research in Moscow. Russia provides the neutron detector aboard the spacecraft.

Instrument principal investigators Stewart Nozette (LRO) and Paul Spudis (Chandrayaan-1) are from the Universities Space Research Association’s Lunar and Planetary Institute. NASA’s Space Operations Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters, manages the Mini-RF program.  NASA’s Exploration Systems Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters, manages the LRO.

In addition to Mini-SAR the Chandryaan-1 spacecraft, which was launched in October 2008 from India’s Satish Dhawan Space Centre, also carries NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper for assessing the moon’s mineral resources.

In the next six months the team will wrestle with the details of launching such a mission, including its cost-effectiveness and the areas in which Indian scientists can significantly add to the mountain of knowledge that has already been collected about the moon. It will form the basis of a project report that ISRO will submit to the Central Government for approval. The objective: to have an Indian lunar mission sent up by  October 2008. “As a motivator, it will electrify the nation,” Kasturirangan explained  last week. “If we go ahead, it will demonstrate to the world that India is capable of taking up a complex mission that is at the cutting edge of space. The spins-offs for us are going to be many.”first planetary mission, Chandrayaan-1, has now been rescheduled to take place in the first week of July as the mission personnel work overtime to sort out payload integration and launch-related issues. “We are targeting the end of June. We will try to make it in the first week of July,” a senior scientist associated with the Rs 386 crore moon mission told here on Monday on condition of anonymity.
The lunar mission was originally scheduled for April this year, a time-frame targeted four years ago to get all the payloads well ahead of time and to galvanise the scientists into mission mode with a target to work on.

Indian Space Research Organisation officials insisted that there are no hardware problems and that the space agency is moving more cautiously to ensure that all systems are well tested before and after integration at each stage.

The 525-kg lunar orbiter will carry as many as 11 instruments (payloads), including six from overseas — two from the US and one each from Britain, Sweden, Germany and Bulgaria.

“Normally we have 2-3 instruments (on board satellite). For the first time, we have 11 instruments from different institutions. We have to ensure that the integration work takes place to our satisfaction
Project Director of Chandrayaan-1.

Stressing on inter-compatibility of various instruments on board, Annadurai said ISRO is working on ensuring that “all the systems (one system) does not disturb other systems’ performance”. “Any system of this volume will have its own issues that need to be solved before proceeding to the next step,” he said.

“The issue gets compounded as the organisations are many. When we do this, it will add to taking away schedule cushions. Just to keep the launch target, we don’t want to overlook any issue that will compromise the unqualified success of the mission”.

ISRO had earlier proposed to launch the lunar probe on April 9 and if not on that day, then on April 23.

“If systems (once integrated and with propellants loaded) are kept for 14 days, then there could be some deterioration”, he said, adding, ISRO is now working on a strategy that would allow it to have more number of launch opportunities. “We have almost arrived at a strategy”.

ISRO would keep a half-an-hour launch window on a given day, and if it is not in a position for the mission during that period, it could be done in the subsequent two days as well, Annadurai explained.While the spacecraft itself will not land on the Moon, it will act as an orbiter and land a rover on the surface. The spacecraft is being launched next month sometime between October 22 and October 26 2008. The spacecraft payload includes 11 payloads (including one from NASA) and will perform remote sensing and studies of the lunar surface. The mission is estimated to cost Rs 386 crore (~ 84.3 million USD).”

The Working Model of Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1

How it Works?

The primary objectives of the Chandrayaan-1 mission are simultaneous chemical, mineralogicaland topographic mapping of the lunar surface at high spatial resolution. These data should enableus to understand compositional variation of major elements, which in turn, should lead to a betterunderstanding of the stratigraphic relationships between various litho units occurring on the lunarsurface. The major element distribution will be determined using an X-ray fluorescence spectro-meter (LEX), sensitive in the energy range of 1–10 keV where Mg, Al, Si, Ca and Fe give their Kαlines. A solar X-ray monitor (SXM) to measure the energy spectrum of solar X-rays, which areresponsible for the fluorescent X-rays, is included. Radioactive elements like Th will be measured byits 238.6 keV line using a low energy gamma-ray spectrometer (HEX) operating in the 20–250 keVregion. The mineral composition will be determined by a hyper-spectral imaging spectrometer(HySI) sensitive in the 400–920 nm range. The wavelength range is further extended to 2600 nmwhere some spectral features of the abundant lunar minerals and water occur, by using a near-infrared spectrometer (SIR-2), similar to that used on the Smart-1 mission, in collaboration withESA. A terrain mapping camera (TMC) in the panchromatic band will provide a three-dimensionalmap of the lunar surface with a spatial resolution of about 5m. Aided by a laser altimeter (LLRI)to determine the altitude of the lunar craft, to correct for spatial coverage by various instruments,TMC should enable us to prepare an elevation map with an accuracy of about 10m.Four additional instruments under international collaboration are being considered. These are:a Miniature Imaging Radar Instrument (mini-SAR), Sub Atomic Reflecting Analyser (SARA),the Moon Mineral Mapper (M3) and a Radiation Monitor (RADOM). Apart from these scientificpayloads, certain technology experiments have been proposed, which may include an impactorwhich will be released to land on the Moon during the mission.Salient features of the mission are described here. The ensemble of instruments onboardChandrayaan-1 should enable us to accomplish the science goals defined for this mission.Chandrayaan-1 is a remote sensing mission pro-posed to be launched from the Satish DhawanLaunch Station at Sriharikota in 2007 by theIndian Space Research Organization using thePolar Satellite Launch Vehicle. It will be injectedinto 240×36,000 km Elliptic Transfer Orbit (ETO)around the Earth and will be inserted in a circum-lunar orbit (LOI) via Lunar Transfer Trajectory(LTT). The launch profile is discussed in detail inan accompanying paper (Adimurthy et al 2005). Itwill enter the lunar orbit at about 1000 km altitudeand brought down to 100 km polar circular orbitin one or two stages. The lunar craft is designedto orbit the moon for a period of two years duringwhich it will carry out chemical, mineralogical andtopographic study of the lunar surface.There are several questions which are critical forunderstanding the formation and early evolution-ary history of the Moon, and the Chandrayaan-1mission objectives have been formulated keepingthis in mind.The main objective of the mission is simultane-ous chemical, mineral and topographic mappingwith the specific goal of understanding the earlyevolution of the Moon. Chemical stratigraphy canprovide better estimation of the average lunar com-position and processes responsible for chemical dif-ferentiation of the Moon. Transport of volatiles,specifically water, and their deposition in thecolder regions of the Moon and degassing of theMoon can be understood by using radon and itsdaughter nuclide210Pb as tracers.

When
Chandrayaan-1 planned to be launched in 2008 using spacecraft and launch vehicle of ISRO. The mission is expected to have an operational life of about 2 years.

The idea of undertaking an Indian scientific mission to Moon was initially mooted in a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1999 that was followed up by discussions in the Astronautical Society of India in 2000. Based on the recommendations made by the learned members of these forums, a National Lunar Mission Task Force was constituted by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Leading Indian scientists and technologists participated in the deliberations of the Task Force that provided an assessment on the feasibility of an Indian Mission to the Moon as well as dwelt on the focus of such a mission and its possible configuration.

Government of India approved ISRO’s proposal for Chandrayaan-1 in November 2003.

Chandrayaan will be ready to launch in between October 19 and October 28.

chandrayaan 1 is now in lunar orbit. the scientific objective of the mission is

The Chandrayaan-1 mission is aimed at high-resolution remote sensing of the moon in visible, near infrared (NIR), low energy X-rays and high-energy X-ray regions. Specifically the objectives are

To prepare a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and altitude resolution of 5-10 m) of both near and far side of the moon. To conduct chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface for distribution of mineral and chemical elements such as Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Calcium, Iron and Titanium as well as high atomic number elements such as Radon, Uranium & Thorium with high spatial resolution.

The Simultaneous photo geological, mineralogical and chemical mapping through Chandrayaan-1 mission will enable identification of different geological units to infer the early evolutionary history of the Moon. The chemical mapping will enable to determine the stratigraphy and nature of the Moon’s crust and thereby test certain aspects of magma ocean hypothesis. This may allow to determine the compositions of impactors that bombarded the Moon during its early evolution which is also relevant to the formation of the Earth. Scientific Objectives The Chandrayaan-1 mission is aimed at high-resolution remote sensing of the moon in visible, near infrared (NIR), low energy X-rays and high-energy X-ray regions. Specifically the objectives are To prepare a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and altitude resolution of 5-10 m) of both near and far side of the moon. To conduct chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface for distribution of mineral and chemical elements such as Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Calcium, Iron and Titanium as well as high atomic number elements such as Radon, Uranium & Thorium with high spatial resolution. The Simultaneous photo geological, mineralogical and chemical mapping through Chandrayaan-1 mission will enable identification of different geological units to infer the early evolutionary history of the Moon. The chemical mapping will enable to determine the stratigraphy and nature of the Moon’s crust and thereby test certain aspects of magma ocean hypothesis. This may allow to determine the compositions of impactors that bombarded the Moon during its early evolution which is also relevant to the formation of the Earth. Click here to enlarge Radiation Environment of the Moon Radiation environment of the Moon produced by solar radiation and solar and galactic cosmic rays: The reflectance spectrum is useful for mineral identification, the fluorescent X-ray spectrum and solar and galactic cosmic-ray produced gamma radiation for chemical mapping, and radiogenic gamma and alpha particle spectrum for mapping of radioactive nuclides (U, Th, K, etc.) and in understanding the leakage of radon from the lunar interior and its transport on the lunar surface. The uranium decay chain, which produces 222Rn and its daughters, forming a thin ‘paint’ on the lunar surface, are shown on the right. The temperature regimes on the sunlit and night side of the Moon and the permanently shadowed cold Polar Regions are shown schematically Mission Objectives To realise the mission goal of harnessing the science payloads, lunar craft and the launch vehicle with suitable ground support systems including Deep Space Network (DSN) station. To realise the integration and testing, launching and achieving lunar polar orbit of about 100 km, in-orbit operation of experiments, communication/ telecommand, telemetry data reception, quick look data and archival for scientific utilisation by scientists.

by Gyandotcom

Every day, Indian consumers receive offers that just sound too good to be true. In the past, these offers came through the mail or by telephone. Now the con artists and swindlers have found a new avenue to pitch their frauds — the Internet. The on-line scams know no national borders or boundaries; they respect no investigative jurisdictions. But, as with all scammers, they have one objective — to separate you from your money! An interesting point about fraud is that it is a crime in which you decide on whether to participate. Hanging up the phone or not responding to shady mailings or emails makes it difficult for the scammer to commit fraud. But con artists are very persuasive, using all types of excuses, explanations, and offers to lead you — and your money — away from common sense.

Gyandotcom was developed to arm you with information so you don’t fall victim to these Internet scam artists. Education, good judgment, and a healthy dose of skepticism are the best defenses against becoming a victim. Remember, if it looks too good to be true, it probably is!.

The Microsoft Windows Xp Antivirus 2009 SCAM

To some of the people that are reading this, it may sound familiar.  To others, perhaps not so much.  Either way, what follows is a description of what happens when you get infected with the XP Antivirus 2009 or the other programs of its ilk.

So, you’re browsing the internet, minding your own business, when suddenly a window pops up when you hit a page you don’t normally go to.  This window tells you that you’ve been infected with viruses, and shows a running tally of how many viruses you’ve been infected with.  It also says that to buy the upgrade for your Antivirus program to get rid of these viruses click here.

It would almost seem natural to click on the link and buy the upgrade.  That’s when the real fun begins.  That will be discussed later.  The first thing to notice is why did this window pop up in the first place?

It is a common feature of viruses to let the user know that they’ve been infected.  It originally started as a point of arrogance for the creator of the virus.  Later, some virus makers decided to start using it to swindle the people they’ve infected out of money.  That was the phase where “SpySheriff” and its clones were the predominant viruses.  Now, the criminal programmers have taken this a step further, and decided to make it look like a Windows program.  It should be known that no version of Windows ever had a feature that let the user know that they were infected with a virus.

The second thing to notice at this point is the file names and locations that are being called “viruses.”  More often than not, they are just temporary files or cookies that the user has picked up on his internet browsing.  Not a one of them are viruses.  This should relieve that state of panic that they try to instill in you at this point.

The last thing to notice before the link to this “upgrade” is clicked is that they are asking for money.  No program that is part of the Windows Operating Systems will ever, EVER ask for money to upgrade.  It really is as simple as that.

Let’s say that you click the upgrade, another dead giveaway has been revealed.  Instead of being linked to the Windows Update page, you are linked to another.  It may take a little observation, since sometimes the linked pages are clones of the Windows Update page.  The ultimate true way to tell is by the address box at the top of your browser screen.  Dimes to donuts, it will not show the same address as the Windows Update page, which is: http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/. Even better, you can set your Windows to be automatically updated.  This way, if any program that claims to be from Windows says it needs updating, you know it’s wrong, because it would just do it without any effort on your part.

Lastly, you should have a powerful antivirus program installed on your computer.  If you already have a good antivirus program, there will be no need to get another one.  For the security of your system, get one before this happens to you.  It will save you a lot of headaches.

Con artists make money through deception. They lie, cheat and fool people into thinking they’ve happened onto a great deal or some easy money, when they’re the ones who’ll be making money. If that doesn’t work, they’ll take advantage of our weaknesses — loneliness, insecurity, poor health or simple ignorance. The only thing more important to a con artist than perfecting a con is perfecting a total lack of conscience.

What does the average con artist look like? Despite what you may think, he isn’t always a shady-looking character. A con artist is an expert at looking however he needs to look. If the con involves banking or investments, the con artist will wear a snappy suit. If it involves home improvement scams, he’ll show up wearing well-worn work clothes. Even the basic assumption You might think you can spot a con artist because he’s someone you instinctively “don’t trust.” But the term con artist is short for confidence artist — they gain your confidence just long enough to get their hands on your money. They can be very charming and persuasive. A good con artist can even make you believe he is really an old friend you haven’t seen in years.

Con artists do share certain characteristics, however. Even the best con can only go on for so long before people start getting suspicious. For that reason, con artists tend to move frequently. They may have a job that allows this, or they might claim to have such a job. Railroad worker, carnival worker and traveling salesman are all parts con artists play to cover up their constant relocations.that the contact would be impossible to catalogue every con, because con artists are inventive. While many cons are simply variations on ones that are hundreds of years old, new technologies and laws give con artists the opportunity to create original scams. Many cons tend to fall into a few general categories, however: street cons, business cons, Internet cons, loan cons and home improvement cons.on is a “he” is incorrect: there are plenty of con women too.t would be impo ssible to catalogue every con, because con artists are inventive. While many cons are simply variations on ones that are hundreds of years old, new technologies and laws give con artists the opportunity to create original scams.

The Pigeon Drop

There are several variations of this con, but they all start with the victim and the con artist both spotting something of value lying around. It’s usually an envelope or bag full of money, but it could be a diamond ring. The con artist tries to get the victim to notice the envelope first, making him less likely to suspect that the con artist planted it. A second con artist may get involved as the victim and the first con artist decide to split up the found money, demanding a fair share since he saw it too. At this point, the cons will suggest that everyone put some of their own money into the envelope as “good faith money,” to show that they’re financially responsible people. Once all of the money is in the envelope, it is divided into thirds and returned to the victim and the two con artists. However, through sleight of hand and a distraction, the victim gets an envelope full of paper scraps.

In the ring variation, the con artist claims to have some expertise in jewelry assessment, and proclaims the ring to be worth several hundred dollars or more. However, not having time to sell or pawn the ring, the con artist offers to let the victim buy out his half. So the victim pays what he can to the con artist and keeps the “valuable” ring, which is actually a cheap fake. The victim, or “pigeon,” is “dropped” and left with nothing.

It’s impossible to come to India and not encounter at least one scam or someone trying to rip you off. You shouldn’t be paranoid, but it’s wise to be very aware and cautious.

Here are the details of the most common scams that you’re likely to find in India.

The Nigerian Advance Fee Scam had been existed around for quite a while, but despite many warnings it continues to draw in many victims. In fact, the Financial Crimes Division of the Secret Service receives about 100 telephone calls from victims/potential victims and 300-500 letter pieces of related correspondence per day about this 419 scam! Indications are that the advance fee fraud grabs hundreds of millions of dollars yearly and the losses are continuing to escalate.

The Nigerian Advance Fee Scheme also known as “4-1-9″ (scam) fraud after the section of the Nigerian penal code which addresses fraud schemes is usually targeted at small and the medium sized businesses, plus charities. This global scam (lately it is seen in Russia, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, also in the US), which involves the receipt of an unwelcome letter claiming to come from somebody who claims to work for the Nigerian Central Bank or from the Nigerian government. The Central Bank of Nigeria actually denies all connection to those who promote this spam scheme.

In the letter, a Nigerian claiming to be a senior civil servant would inform the recipient that he is seeking a honest foreign company into whose account he could deposit funds ranging from $10-$60 million which the Nigerian government actually overpaid on some procurement contract.

The goal of the 419 scammers is to delude the victim into thinking that he or she has been singled out to take part in a very lucrative, although questionable, arrangement. The intended victim is reassured of the genuineness of the arrangement by fake or false documents manner in fact official Nigerian government letterhead, seals, with false letters of credit, payments schedules and the bank drafts. The 419 Scam mail senders might even establish the credibility of his contacts, and thereby his influence, by arranging a meeting between the victim and “government officials” in real or may be with fake government offices.

Once the victim becomes confident of the ultimate success of the deal and something goes wrong. The victim who trusted this 419 scam mail is then pressured or even threatened to provide one or more large sums of money to save the existing venture. For example, an official would demand a frank bribe or with an unforeseen tax or fee to the Nigerian government would have to be paid before the money could actually be transferred. Each fee paid is been described as the very last fee required. The scheme might be prolonged out over many months.

Be careful. These 419 scammers could be physically dangerous as well as dangerous to your finances. Victims are roughly always requested to travel to Nigeria or to the border country to total a transaction. Victims are often told that a visa would not be necessary to enter the country. The 419 Nigerian scam artists could then try bribing airport officials to pass the victims through Immigration and Customs. Because it is a very serious offense in Nigeria to enter without a valid visa, the victim’s illegal entry might be used by the 419 Scam mailers as leverage to coerce the victims into releasing funds. Violence and threats of physical harm might be employed for further pressure to victims. In June of 1995, an American was also murdered in Lagos, Nigeria, while pursuing a 419 scam, and numerous other foreign nationals have been reported as missing.

Avoid these 419 scams like the disease! Don’t let promises of huge amounts of money impair your judgment?

Tips for Safely Buy Air Tickets Online

The Internet has certainly made things easier to shop at all hours of the night and buy from stores you normally wouldn’t have access to. However, online shoppers should learn to distinguish between the legitimate shops and the fraudulent sellers.

Know who you are purchasing from: Verify the seller with your local consumer protection agency and the Better Business Bureau. Surf the web for feedback forums to read up on people’s experience with the seller. Make sure you have the seller’s contact information in case you have to locate them later.

Understand how the seller handles complaints: Read up on the seller’s website and learn how they handle their complaints. Check to see if they are obliged to meet certain standards within their respective country.

Be wary if there are no complaints:Deceptive sellers can open and close shop overnight. If you don’t find complaints on the seller, it doesn’t mean that they are genuine.

Be on guard for super low prices or rebates that are too good to be true:The seller may in fact not have any merchandise at all to send or may not fulfill the promised rebate.

Get the low down on the offer:A legitimate shop provides all the details on the product, price, delivery time and refund policies, along with the terms of the warranty.

Don’t get pressured:You should be given the time to make a decision. If you are demanded to make the purchase quickly or the seller refuses to accept your “no” for an answer, then it could be a scam.

Watch out for an unsolicited email, it could be fraudulent:If you know the company that sent you the email and you don’t want to receive any more emails, you may simply ask to be removed from the list. However, if you respond to an unknown sender, your email address may be validated by the sender and you might receive even more unsolicited emails. The best way to deal with unsolicited emails is to simply delete them.

Spot the impostors:You might receive an email that seems as if it is connected to a legitimate business or has a Web site that looks genuine. If you have doubts, search for the company yourself and verify the email with the business.

Protect your private information:Never provide your credit card or bank information unless you are paying for something. Social security numbers are not needed unless you are applying for credit.

Buy safely:Using credit cards are the best way to assure your online purchases since you may dispute the charges if you never received the item or the offer was misrepresented.

Consumer Tips for Avoiding Phishing Scams

Identity thieves are targeting the personal information stored on your computer. Here are some basic tips on how to use the Internet safely.

Fishing Out the Phishing Scams: Recognize the phishing scams which typically involve phony emails and web sites that mimic companies in order to swindle citizens of their personal information. Legitimate companies never request user names, passwords, credit card numbers or social security by email. If you are troubled by your account, get in touch with the company directly.

Install all-inclusive security software and update it frequently: Deceitful emails can contain malicious software which can harm your computer or track your web activities, unbeknownst to you. Make sure an Internet security suite* is installed on your computer and is kept up to date.

Don’t Click the Link, It Could be a Trick: Do not click links or even cut and paste links from emails into your browser. Phishers are able to make links look like trustworthy site, but in fact send you to a different site. Instead, type in personally the company’s correct Web address.**

Never Enter Personal Info on Pop-up Screens: Phishers sometimes guide computer users to seemingly legitimate sites, but then an illicit pop-up screen appears with a form and fill-in blanks for personal information. Install pop-up blocking software to help avoid this type of phishing attack.

Verify the Web Site’s Security Status: When entering personal information on a company’s web site, check that the site is secure: a padlock icon appears on the browser’s status bar, or the URL (web address) reads “https:”. The “s” in https signifies “secure.” Be aware that these indications are not fail-safe since security icons may be forged. Computer users can also look for a seal such as the BBB Accredited Business seal on home pages, which notifies users if the company is accredited and meets certain standards.

Use Nonsensical, Long Passwords: Create passwords that use upper and lower case letters, numbers, special characters and are longer than six characters. It’s also wise to create nonsensical, random passwords that do not relate to your life such as a favorite baseball team. Instead of “123456,” a better case for a password would be “w39!BTu82.” Last, but not least, use different passwords for separate accounts and change them regularly.

5 Tips To Avoid E-card Scams

E-greeting cards have become a popular way to reach out to friends and family at holiday time and on special occasions. Regrettably, cybercriminals also take advantage of the growing popularity of e-cards by duping consumers into downloading malware. You can safeguard yourself, your friends, and your family against e-card scams by following the tips below.

Don’t open attachments: Most legitimate e-cards are links to the company’s website that allow you to go directly to your card. Avoid attachments and don’t download anything from a source you don’t recognize.

When in doubt, delete: If something looks a little strange or “phishy,” such as the name of the sender or vague subject lines, just delete the card. It’s better to do that than run the risk of getting a virus.

Know where you’re going online: Use security software* that detects sites that push online scams, adware installations, attachments filled with viruses and other downloads that could harm your system.

Know what to look for: While most e-card scams actually look legitimate, there are usually some telltale signs to look for. Watch out for misspelled words or names, not knowing who sent you the card, a disguised name (such as Your Friend, A Secret Admirer, etc.), or an odd URL.

Always read the fine print before accepting any terms: Make sure you actually read the fine print before agreeing to anything. Some e-card scams list in their terms that they can send e-mail to everyone in your address book. Make sure you know what you are agreeing to.

Malicious Ads on Bing: Online crooks have found a way to exploit Bing’s advertising program by posting malicious pharmaceutical ads. A recent report by KnujOn and LegitScript shows that 90% of Bing’s pharmacy ads were malicious. If an online user clicks on the ad, he or she may be directed to a phishing site to steal their personal and financial information. To avoid online ad scams, always make sure to investigate the company beforehand.

ISSUED IN PUBLIC INTEREST BY GYANDOTCOM

Credit and special Thanks to Sherall Cook

Contents  Curtesy: Top 5 common Scams in india by Sherall Cook

Beware the Mars Hoax.

Update: Even nasa approve the mars hoax http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/07jul_marshoax.htm

Yes Its a Hoax every year this email spread on internet claming that red planet is coming near to earth and visible as big as moon.. this hoax email started in 2004.Yesterday  This lady ask me do you know in coming august something gonna happned on 27th august 2009.  i said i dont know. respected  lady  said you must know that mars is coming near to earth and its as big as moon. i got some doubt regarding the red planet, how planet mars break the orbital belt and come closer to earth.this question landed up in a investigation of the hoax email. and after talking to my friends in the nasa Research labs i got some useful right information.

lets talk about the truth behind Red planet comeing near to earth.

Mars as big as the moon on August 27? Email hoax claims August 27 will bring the closest encounter between Mars and Earth in recorded history. Unfortunately, this ‘once in a lifetime event’ already came and went in 6 years ago in August 2003.

Disappointed? Don’t be. If Mars did come close enough to rival the Moon, its gravity would alter Earth’s orbit and raise terrible tides.

Sixty-nine million km is good. At that distance, Mars shines brighter than anything else in the sky except the Sun, the Moon and Venus. The visual magnitude of Mars on Oct. 30, 2005, will be -2.3. Even inattentive sky watchers will notice it, rising at sundown and soaring overhead at midnight.

You might remember another encounter with Mars, about Seven years ago, on August 27, 2003. That was the closest in recorded history, by a whisker, and millions of people watched as the distance between Mars and Earth shrunk to 56 million km. This October’s encounter, at 69 million km, is similar. To casual observers, Mars will seem about as bright and beautiful in 2005 as it was in 2003.

Although closest approach is still months away, Mars is already conspicuous in the early morning. Before the sun comes up, it’s the brightest object in the eastern sky, really eye-catching. If you have a telescope, even a small one, point it at Mars. You can see the bright icy South Polar Cap and strange dark markings on the planet’s surface.
Above: Painted green by a flashlight, astronomer Dennis Mammana of California points out Mars to onlookers on Aug. 26, 2003, the last time Mars was so close to Earth. One day people will walk among those dark markings, exploring and prospecting, possibly mining ice from the polar caps to supply their settlements. It’s a key goal of NASA’s Vision for Space Exploration: to return to the Moon, to visit Mars and to go beyond.

Every day the view improves. Mars is coming–and that’s no hoax.

June 6, 2005: By the time you finish reading this sentence, you’ll be 25 miles closer to the planet Mars.

Earth is racing toward Mars at a speed of 23,500 mph, which means the red planet is getting bigger and brighter by the minute. In October, when the two planets are closest together, Mars will outshine everything in the night sky except Venus and the Moon. (You’re another 50 miles closer: keep reading!)

It’s only June, now, but Mars is already eye-catching. You can see it early in the morning, rising before the sun in the eastern sky, shining almost twice as bright as a 1st-magnitude star. A sky map, below, shows where to find Mars on Wednesday morning, June 29th, when it appears pleasingly close to the crescent Moon.

Why are we rushing toward Mars? It’s simple orbital mechanics. Think of Earth and Mars as two runners on a circular race track, with lanes corresponding to planetary orbits. Earth, running fast on the inside lane, circles the course in 12 months. Mars, plodding along an outside lane, takes twice as long to go around. Every two years, approximately, Earth catches Mars from behind and laps it.

That’s where we are now, approaching Mars from behind. Relative speed: 23,500 mph.

We won’t actually lap Mars until autumn, October 30th at 0319 Universal Time, to be exact. Only 43 million miles (69 million km) will separate us from Mars, then, compared to an average distance of about 140 million miles (225 million kilometers). It’s a great time to send spacecraft there.

Mindful of that, NASA Already launch the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) on August 10th, 2005. Because it takes 6+ months to reach Mars, the best time to start the trip is a month or so before closest approach–thus, August. MRO will arrive in March 2006, enter orbit, and begin a 2-year mission to map the red planet in greater detail than ever before.

The spacecraft’s high-resolution cameras will be able to discern objects, such as rocks and rovers and crashed Mars landers, less than 1 meter across. A radar sounder will probe for underground water while spectrometers map the distribution of surface minerals. Other instruments will monitor the atmosphere, teaching researchers back on Earth how to forecast martian weather. These are key elements in NASA’s plan to eventually send humans to Mars
Above: The HiRISE camera onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has 5-times better resolution than cameras on other Mars orbiters and might be able to take pictures of the lost Mars Polar Lander.
The Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity are already there. They arrived in January 2004 on the heels of another Earth-Mars close encounter in 2003. (Remember, this happens every two years.) The two robots were supposed to stop working months after they landed, worn down by wind, stuck in sand, or exhausted by too little solar power. Spirit and Opportunity are still rolling and, if they hold true to form, they’ll be “alive” to see Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter when it gets there, a tiny point of light in the martian night sky, mapping the red planet for explorers of the future.
Back on Earth people are going to enjoy watching Mars swell and brighten in the months ahead. By mid-summer, amateur astronomers with backyard telescopes will be able to spot polar ice caps and dust storms and strange dark markings. By autumn, even the least attentive of your neighbors will be remarking on “that bright red thing in the sky.”

Mark October 30th as the best day of all: Mars will rise at sunset, hang overhead at midnight, and “blaze forth against the dark background of space with a splendor that outshines Sirius and rivals the giant Jupiter himself.” That’s how astronomer Percival Lowell described a similar close encounter in the 19th century.

Can’t wait? Don’t. You can see Mars any clear morning this summer. We recommend Wednesday morning, June 29th. Mars and the fat crescent Moon are going to have a pleasing close encounter in the dawn sky. Look for them rising in the east around 4:30 AM; the sight will absolutely wake you up.

More good news: you’re now 1000 miles closer to the planet Mars.

The Truth of Mars

The Red Planet is Not a Dead Planet

Mars today is a world of cold and lonely deserts, apparently without life of any kind, at least on the surface. Indeed it looks like Mars has been cold and dry for billions of years, with an atmosphere so thin, any liquid water on the surface quickly boils away while the sun’s ultraviolet radiation scorches the ground.

The situation sounds bleak, but research published today in Science Express reveals new hope for the Red Planet. The first definitive detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars indicates that Mars is still alive, in either a biologic or geologic sense, according to a team of NASA and university scientists.

“Methane is quickly destroyed in the Martian atmosphere in a variety of ways, so our discovery of substantial plumes of methane in the northern hemisphere of Mars in 2003 indicates some ongoing process is releasing the gas,” says lead author Michael Mumma of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. “At northern mid-summer, methane is released at a rate comparable to that of the massive hydrocarbon seep at Coal Oil Point in Santa Barbara, Calif.”

Right: An artist’s concept of a possible geological source of Martian methane: subsurface water, carbon dioxide and the planet’s internal heat combine to release the gas.

Methane — four atoms of hydrogen bound to a carbon atom — is the main component of natural gas on Earth. It is of interest to astrobiologists because much of Earth’s methane come from living organisms digesting their nutrients. However, life is not required to produce the gas. Other purely geological processes, like oxidation of iron, also release methane. “Right now, we don’t have enough information to tell if biology or geology — or both — is producing the methane on Mars,” said Mumma. “But it does tell us that the planet is still alive, at least in a geologic sense. It’s as if Mars is challenging us, saying, hey, find out what this means.”

If microscopic Martian life is producing the methane, it likely resides far below the surface, where it’s still warm enough for liquid water to exist. Liquid water, as well as energy sources and a supply of carbon, are necessary for all known forms of life.

“On Earth, microorganisms thrive 2 to 3 kilometers (about 1.2 to 1.9 miles) beneath the Witwatersrand basin of South Africa, where natural radioactivity splits water molecules into molecular hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O). The organisms use the hydrogen for energy. It might be possible for similar organisms to survive for billions of years below the permafrost layer on Mars, where water is liquid, radiation supplies energy, and carbon dioxide provides carbon,” says Mumma.

“Gases, like methane, accumulated in such underground zones might be released into the atmosphere if pores or fissures open during the warm seasons, connecting the deep zones to the atmosphere at crater walls or canyons,” he says.

“Microbes that produced methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide were one of the earliest forms of life on Earth,” notes Carl Pilcher, Director of the NASA Astrobiology Institute which partially supported the research. “If life ever existed on Mars, it’s reasonable to think that its metabolism might have involved making methane from Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide.”

Above: one way methane is destroyed in the Martian atmosphere: the molecules are rapidly broken apart by solar ultraviolet radiation. Because methane doesn’t last long in the martian environment, any methane found there must be recently produced. [animation]

However, it is possible a geologic process produced the Martian methane, either now or eons ago. On Earth, the conversion of iron oxide (rust) into the serpentine group of minerals creates methane, and on Mars this process could proceed using water, carbon dioxide, and the planet’s internal heat. Another possibility is vulcanism: Although there is no evidence of currently active Martian volcanoes, ancient methane trapped in ice “cages” called clathrates might now be released.

The team found methane in the atmosphere of Mars by carefully observing the planet over several Mars years (and all Martian seasons) using spectrometers attached to telescopes at NASA’s Infrared Telescope Facility, run by the University of Hawaii, and the W. M. Keck telescope, both at Mauna Kea, Hawaii.

“We observed and mapped multiple plumes of methane on Mars, one of which released about 19,000 metric tons of methane,” says Geronimo Villanueva of the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. Villanueva is stationed at NASA Goddard and is co-author of the paper. “The plumes were emitted during the warmer seasons — spring and summer — perhaps because the permafrost blocking cracks and fissures vaporized, allowing methane to seep into the Martian air. Curiously, some plumes had water vapor while others did not,” he says.

Above: Methane plumes found in Mars’ atmosphere during the northern summer season. According to the team, the plumes were seen over areas that show evidence of ancient ground ice or flowing water. For example, plumes appeared over northern hemisphere regions such as east of Arabia Terra, the Nili Fossae region, and the south-east quadrant of Syrtis Major, an ancient volcano 1,200 kilometers (about 745 miles) across.

It will take future missions, like NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory, to discover the origin of the Martian methane. One way to tell if life is the source of the gas is by measuring isotope ratios. Isotopes are heavier versions of an element; for example, deuterium is a heavier version of hydrogen. In molecules that contain hydrogen, like water and methane, the rare deuterium occasionally replaces a hydrogen atom. Since life prefers to use the lighter isotopes, if the methane has less deuterium than the water released with it on Mars, it’s a sign that life is producing the methane.

Whatever future research reveals–biology or geology–one thing is already clear: Mars is not so dead, after all.

by Rohit Sharma

Before we move on to  what is swine flu and how it effects, i suppose now as its a Pandemic and effecting almost each and every major part of our country (India). here we would like to provide the right information how to prevent from swine flu. kindly read care fully and try to prevent your self from this deadly pandemic disease.

By now you’ve probably seen the frightening pictures from Pune .the death of 14 year  old girl and till now almost more then 4 people died by the swine infection, people trying to avoid catching the swine flu infection. Unfortunately swine flu has now been confirmed in multiple locations within the India. the death of reda in pune is because of less awareness and no precautions taken by the medical authorities.

So what precautions can you easily take to prevent being infected by swine flu?

#1

Always cover your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing; ideally use something disposable like a tissue. Avoid touching your face, nose or mouth too frequently with your hands since swine flu appears to be transmitted through respiratory droplets in the same fashion as the common cold.
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Step 2

Wash your hands frequently with soap and water since swine flu like other viruses can be contracted by touching objects contaminated by the virus. It’s unsure how long the swine flu virus can survive on surrounding surfaces.
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Step 3

Though alcohol based hand sanitizers don’t routinely kill viruses they probably do offer some limited protection in preventing swine flu infections.
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Step 4

If swine flu infections have been medically confirmed in your area consider avoiding large public gatherings. Individuals can be contagious with the swine flu virus for several day before demonstrating any signs or symptoms of infection. Be particularly careful about indoor gatherings where air circulates poorly.
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Step 5

If you’re really paranoid and don’t mind looking odd then consider wearing a respiratory mask. This barrier method does offer some basic protection against infection though not all masks are created equally. Higher quality masks capable of filtering out some respiratory infections are more expensive.
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Step 6

If you start feeling ill with cold or flu-like symptoms do not go to work. Stay home and begin the usual home remedies for colds and flu. Contact your health care provider, local health department or hospital emergency room if your symptoms worsen or fail to improve for information about where to go to be screened for possible swine flu infection.

Beware of swine flu its your next door neighbour.  issued in public interest by gyandotcom

What is swine flu?
Like people, pigs can get influenza (flu), but swine flu viruses aren’t the same as human flu viruses. Swine flu doesn’t often infect people, and the rare human cases that have occurred in the past have mainly affected people who had direct contact with pigs. But the current swine flu outbreak is different. It’s caused by a new swine flu virus that has spread from person to person — and it’s happening among people who haven’t had any contact with pigs.

What are swine flu symptoms?
Symptoms of swine flu are like regular flu symptoms and include fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, headache, chills, and fatigue. Some people have reported diarrhea and vomiting associated with swine flu. Those symptoms can also be caused by many other conditions, and that means that you and your doctor can’t know, just based on your symptoms, if you’ve got swine flu. It takes a lab test to tell whether it’s swine flu or some other condition.

If I think I have swine flu, what should I do? When should I see my doctor?
If you have flu symptoms, stay home, and when you cough or sneeze, cover your mouth and nose with a tissue. Afterward, throw the tissue in the trash and wash your hands. That will help prevent your flu from spreading.

If you’ve got flu symptoms, and you’ve recently been to a high-risk area like Mexico, officials recommend that you see your doctor. If you have flu symptoms but you haven’t been in a high-risk area, you can still see a doctor — that’s your call.

Keep in mind that your doctor will not be able to determine whether you have swine flu, but he or she would take a sample from you and send it to a state health department lab for testing to see if it’s swine flu. If your doctor suspects swine flu, he or she would be able to write you a prescription for Tamiflu or Relenza. Those drugs may not be required; U.S. swine flu patients have made a full recovery without

How does swine flu spread? Is it airborne?
The new swine flu virus apparently spreads just like regular flu. You could pick up germs directly from an infected person, or by touching an object they recently touched, and then touching your eyes, mouth, or nose, delivering their germs for your own infection. That’s why you should make washing your hands a habit, even when you’re not ill. Infected people can start spreading flu germs up to a day before symptoms start, and for up to seven days after getting sick, according to the CDC.

The swine flu virus can become airborne if you cough or sneeze without covering your nose and mouth, sending germs into the air.

The U.S. residents infected with swine flu virus had no direct contact with pigs. it’s likely that the infections represent widely separated cycles of human-to-human infections.

How is swine flu treated?
The new swine flu virus is sensitive to the antiviral drugs Tamiflu and Relenza. We  recommends those drugs to prevent or treat swine flu; the drugs are most effective when taken within 48 hours of the start of flu symptoms. But not everyone needs those drugs; many of the first people in the U.S. with lab-confirmed swine flu recovered without treatment. The Department of Homeland Security has released 25% of its stockpile of Tamiflu and Relenza to states. Health officials have asked people not to hoard Tamiflu or Relenza.

Is there a vaccine against the new swine flu virus?
No. But the CDC and the World Health Organization are already taking the first steps toward making such a vaccine. That’s a lengthy process — it takes months.

I had a flu vaccine this season. Am I protected against swine flu?
No. This season’s flu vaccine wasn’t made with the new swine flu virus in mind; no one saw this virus coming ahead of time.

If you were vaccinated against flu last fall or winter, that vaccination will go a long way toward protecting you against certain human flu virus strains. But the new swine flu virus is a whole other problem.

How can I prevent swine flu infection?
Gyandotcom  recommends taking these major steps:

Wash your hands regularly with soap and water, especially after coughing or sneezing. Or use an alcohol-based hand cleaner.
Avoid close contact with sick people.
Avoid touching your mouth, nose, or eyes.

Can I still eat pork?
Yes. You can’t get swine flu by eating pork, bacon, or other foods that come from pigs.

What else should I be doing?
Keep informed of what’s going on in your community. Your state and local health departments may have important information if swine flu develops in your area. For instance, parents might want to consider what they would do if their child’s school temporarily closed because of flu. That happened in New York City, where St. Francis Preparatory School in Queens closed for a couple of days after eight students were found to have swine flu.  Don’t panic, but a little planning wouldn’t hurt.

How severe is swine flu?
The severity of cases in the current swine flu outbreak has varied widely. In Mexico, there have been deaths and other severe cases. Early cases in the U.S. have been mild. But that could change. The virus itself could change, either becoming more or less dangerous. Scientists are watching closely to see which way the new swine flu virus is heading — but health experts warn that flu viruses are notoriously hard to predict, as far as how and when they’ll change.

Why has the swine flu infection been deadlier in Mexico than in Global areas.?
It is unclear why U.S. cases have been milder compared to those in Mexico. Among the first 20 reported cases in the U.S., only one patient required hospitalization and that person has fully recovered. Medical researchers are actively investigating to learn more about the differences between the cases in Mexico and those in the U.S.

Have there been previous swine flu oubtreaks?
Yes. There was a swine flu outbreak at Fort Dix, N.J., in 1918 and in 1976 among military recruits. It lasted about a month and then went away as mysteriously as it appeared. As many as 240 people were infected; one died.

The swine flu that spread at Fort Dix was the H1N1 strain. That’s the same flu strain that caused the disastrous flu pandemic of 1918-1919, resulting in tens of millions of deaths.

Concern that a new H1N1 pandemic might return in winter 1976 led to a crash program to create a vaccine and vaccinate all Americans against swine flu. That vaccine program ran into all kinds of problems — not the least of which was public perception that the vaccine caused excessive rates of dangerous reactions. After more than 40 million people were vaccinated, the effort was abandoned.

As it turned out, there was no swine flu epidemic.

I was vaccinated against the 1976 swine flu virus. Am I still protected?
Probably not. The new swine flu virus is different from the 1976 virus. And it’s not clear whether a vaccine given more than 30 years ago would still be effective.

How many people have swine flu?
That’s a hard question to answer, because the figure is changing so quickly. If you want to keep track of U.S. cases that have been confirmed by lab tests and reported to the WHO,  If you’re looking for cases in other countries, visit the World Health Organization’s web site. And when you hear about large numbers of people who are ill, remember that lab tests may not yet have been done to confirm that they have swine flu. And there may be a little lag time before confirmed cases make it into the official tally.
The World Health Organization has not declared swine flu to be a pandemic. The WHO wants to learn more about the virus first and see how severe it is and how deeply it takes root.

But it takes more than a new virus spreading among humans to make a pandemic. The virus has to be able to spread efficiently from one person to another, and transmission has to be sustained over time. In addition, the virus has to spread geographically. but take more n more precautions. kindly read step by step precautions above.

CDC Advisors Make Recommendations for Use of Vaccine Against Novel H1N1

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) met today to make recommendations for use of vaccine against novel influenza A (H1N1). 

The committee met to develop recommendations on who should receive vaccine against novel influenza A (H1N1) when it becomes available, and to determine which groups of the population should be prioritized if the vaccine is initially available in extremely limited quantities.

The committee recommended the vaccination efforts focus on five key populations.  Vaccination efforts are designed to help reduce the impact and spread of novel H1N1. The key populations include those who are at higher risk of disease or complications, those who are likely to come in contact with novel H1N1, and those who could infect young infants. When vaccine is first available, the committee recommended that programs and providers try to vaccinate:

• pregnant women,
• people who live with or care for children younger than 6 months of age,
• health care and emergency medical services personnel,
• persons between the ages of 6 months through 24 years of age, and
• people from ages 25 through 64 years who are at higher risk for novel H1N1 because of chronic health disorders or compromised immune systems.

The groups listed above total approximately 159 million people in the United States.

The committee does not expect that there will be a shortage of novel H1N1 vaccine, but availability and demand can be unpredictable. There is some possibility that initially the vaccine will be available in limited quantities. In this setting, the committee recommended that the following groups receive the vaccine before others:

• pregnant women,
• people who live with or care for children younger than 6 months of age,
• health care and emergency medical services personnel with direct patient contact,
• children 6 months through 4 years of age, and
• children 5 through 18 years of age who have chronic medical conditions.

The committee recognized the need to assess supply and demand issues at the local level. The committee further recommended that once the demand for vaccine for these prioritized groups has been met at the local level, programs and providers should begin vaccinating everyone from ages 25 through 64 years. Current studies indicate the risk for infection among persons age 65 or older is less than the risk for younger age groups. Therefore, as vaccine supply and demand for vaccine among younger age groups is being met, programs and providers should offer vaccination to people over the age of 65.

The committee also stressed that people over the age of 65 receive the seasonal vaccine as soon as it is available. Even if novel H1N1 vaccine is initially only available in limited quantities, supply and availability will continue, so the committee stressed that programs and providers continue to vaccinate unimmunized patients and not keep vaccine in reserve for later administration of the second dose.

The novel H1N1 vaccine is not intended to replace the seasonal flu vaccine. It is intended to be used alongside seasonal flu vaccine to protect people.  Seasonal flu and novel H1N1 vaccines may be administered on the same day.

Issue in public Intrest by

by Rohit Sharma for Gyandotcom

Our universe extends staggeringly far beyond our own earthly environment. Trying to grasp the size in any meaningful way is bound to make your brain hurt. We can make analogies to at least understand a few of the relevant scales, but this can’t give us a complete picture all in one go. In the end, we must settle for an understanding of large numbers, aided by the tool of scientific notation. Modern astrophysicists don’t walk around with a deeply developed intuition for the vast scale of the universe—it’s too much for the human brain. But these scientists do walk around with a grasp of the relevant numbers involved. As an example, here are some of the numbers I carry in my head to understand the universe’s size: • A lecture hall is approximately 10 meters across, and light travels across it in about 30 nanoseconds. We will be using light, which travels at 300,000,000 meters per second to quantify distances. • The earth is 6378 km in radius, and light would travel seven times around the earth in one second if it could travel in a circle like this. • The moon is about one-quarter the diameter of the earth, and is 1.25 light-seconds away—corresponding to about 30 earth diameters to scale earth−moon distance • The sun is 109 times the diameter of the earth, and about 8 light-minutes away (this is 1 “Astronomical Unit,” or A.U., and is about 150 million km). • Jupiter is about 40 light-minutes from the sun (5 A.U.). • Pluto is about 40 A.U. from the sun, or about 5.5 light-hours out. • The next star is 4.5 light-years away—take a moment to appreciate this big jump! • The center of the Milky Way (our galaxy) is about 25,000 light-years away. A galaxy is a gravitation-ally bound collection of stars: islands of stars—many of which make up the universe. • Large galaxies like our own are about 100,000 light-years across. • The nearest external large galaxy is the Andromeda galaxy—about 2 million light-years away (20 galaxy diameters). • The nearest large cluster of galaxies (Virgo Cluster) is about 50 million light-years away. • The edge of the visible universe is about 13.7 billion light years away. 1As you can see, the range of scales is too huge to be described all at once by a single measure. We went from small fractions of a light-second (light crosses the lecture hall in 0.00000003 seconds, and can cross the United States of America. in about 0.01 seconds) to huge quantities (billions!) of light-years. In total, going from the lecture hall to the size of the visible Universe takes us through 25 orders-of-magnitude (factors of ten). At best our puny brains are capable of comprehending maybe 8 orders-of-magnitude directly (1 mm grain of sand to 100 km scale visible from mountain-tops). Outside this direct experience, we rely on the numbers to convey the relative scales. What Do We Know About the Beginning? What we see when we look into the universe today is the illusion that all galaxies are hurtling away from our own, as if we were sitting at the center of some momentous explosion. The farther the galaxy, the faster its apparent recession from us. This effect is seen in the wavelengths (colors) of light from distant galaxies. Wavelengths from receeding galaxies are shifted toward the red (“redshifted”) by a precisely measureable amount—analogous to the Doppler shift we hear in the pitch of an ambulance racing past. The farther the galaxy, the greater the redshift, and thus the faster it is moving away. As an aside, this expansion rate is characterized by the Hubble Constant, 70 km/s/Mpc. These strange units mean for every megaparsec (Mpc, or 3.26 million light-years) we go away, galaxies are receding by another 70 kilometers per second. There are two illusory aspects to this astounding observation (first recognized in the 1920’s). The first is that though we appear to be at the center of the expansion, we are not. Every galaxy would make the same claim. Think about it this way. We look at galaxy A 10 Mpc away, receding at 700 km/s. Straight beyond galaxy A is galaxy B, 20 Mpc away, receding at 1400 km/s (Figure 1). Imagine standing on a planet around a star in galaxy A. In one direction, you can look back and see our galaxy, the Milky Way. On the opposite side of the sky you see galaxy B. Both are 10 Mpc away, and both appear to move away from you at 700km/s. So on galaxy A, it also appears that all galaxies recede from you. Two good analogies help illustrate this concept. For the first, imagine galaxies drawn on the surface of a balloon, and the balloon being blown up. As the “fabric” of the balloon stretches, galaxies move farther away. The farther, the faster. To each, it appears to be at the center of the expansion. But there is no center (here we confine our thoughts to the surface of the balloon—unaware of the three-dimensional center of the spherical balloon we can see).The second analogy is that of a baking raisin bread. Now imagine the raisins to be galaxies, and the bread is space itself. Again, each raisin sees all others moving away from it, and the farther the raisin, the faster it appears to move away. But there really is no center (forget that the bread has edges, or that it’s in your oven). The second correction to the statement that “we see galaxies receding with an ever-increasing velocity as we go farther” is subtle. But the correct picture is not that galaxies are whizzing out into a pre-existing, empty space. The right way to look at it is that space itself is being created/expanded between the galaxies. The galaxies are simply along for the ride, being carried in the expanding space. Here, the raisin bread analogy is particularly useful. The raisins (galaxies) are not zooming through the bread (space), but rather the bread (space) itself is expanding. This picture ultimately agrees better with observation, and is consistent with the predictions of general relativity. Space itself is being “created” as the universe expands. It doesn’t take a great leap of imagination to consider that if space is expanding in all directions, it used to be smaller. Galaxies used to be closer. How far do we carry this back? We can make the bold statement that maybe we should carry it to the extreme—to a time when the whole universe was smaller than a grain of sand. This seemingly preposterous extrapolation is, surprisingly, supported by observations. If the universe were once this small, it would also have been so very hot that even protons and neutrons would have been evaporated into quarks. If we play this game—knowing what we do about particle physics from our accelerator experiments—we can predict the relative abundance of the light elements that would have frozen out of this quark soup as the universe expanded and cooled. This simple (in concept) game actually gets the story right! It predicts the abundances of hydrogen, helium, lithium, etc. that we see in the primordial gas clouds that still surround us. Other predictions likewise work with this scenario (cosmic 2From Milky Way (MW) perspective From galaxy A perspective MW A B MW A B 0 700 1400 0 700 −700 Figure 1: The same motions of the Milky Way, and two galaxies labled A and B. The frame on the left shows both galaxies receeding from MW, B traveling faster than A. From the perspective of galaxy A, both B and MW move away at the same speed. microwave background radiation, ages of oldest stars). This model of the beginning of our universe is called the Big Bang model, and has gained nearly universal (forgive the pun!) acceptance among scientists. How Big is the Universe, Really? This simple question has a somewhat complicated answer that may involve new ways of thinking, but we’ll try to get to the bottom of the issue. To start, I note that the universe is largely made up of space. By space I mean vacuum—emptiness—nothing. Though we have galaxies of stars littering our skies, even these have lots of empty space in them. On the whole, if you smeared out all the atoms in the universe uniformly, you would end up with less than one hydrogen atom per cubic meter. That’s sparse! Even in our locally dense galaxy (most of the universe is space between the galaxies), stars are like grains of sand several miles apart! Since the universe is mostly empty space, it is appropriate to talk about the nature and extent of theuniverse in terms of the nature and extent of space itself. Here is where things start to get weird. We allpicture space as being three-dimensional and flat. By flat, we mean Euclidean. By Euclidean, we mean thatall the properties of geometry we learned about in high school apply. These are statements like: parallellines remain parallel forever; the angles in a triangle add to 180◦; space is infinite in extent. Such statements appear to be valid in our daily experience.This picture of flat space formed the backdrop of physics throughout the Newtonian era. Einstein changed this when he suggested two radical ideas: 1. Time must be included in our description of space into a unified concept of space time. Time and space mean different things for observers moving with respect to each other, becoming inextricably mixed.This is the subject of special relativity. 2. Space-time may be curved—there is no requirement for flatness. What’s more, the presence of mass curves spacetime. This is the subject of general relativity. Is nothing sacred? Apparently not. These concepts truly re-shaped the way physicists think about space. Not surprisingly, the description of the nature of the universe (the size and shape of space) is profoundly impacted by this paradigm. In addition to local spacetime curvature due to masses (stars, galaxies) within the universe, there may be a global curvature that apples to the whole of the universe. It is next-to-impossible to imagine in your head what it would mean for all of three-dimensional space (actually, 4-dimensional spacetime) to be curved. B A C Figure 2: Ant experiments on a sphere: A) the straightest line possible—a great circle—comes back on itself; B) Initially parallel tracks eventually converge; C) A straight line triangle on a sphere has angles that add to more than 180◦, in this case 270◦. Curved into what? But we have some lower-dimensional analogies to help us appreciate what this might look like. 3.1 A Two-dimensional Analog Imagine you are an ant living on a basketball. You can only move around on the surface, so that you essentially live in a two-dimensional space. Another way to say this is simply that the basketball surface (texture notwithstanding) is a two-dimensional surface existing in our three-dimensional space. This third dimension allows us to see what the ant cannot. If the ant makes a smelly deposit on the surface and runs away in horror, it will ultimately come back on the surprise, though never deviating from a straight line. We call this straight line a great circle (see Figure 2A), because to our three-dimensional eyes, we can see that the path of the ant through three-dimensional space is a circle (like an equator). To the ant, the line was straight as could be. No matter what direction the ant chose to run in, the result would be the same as long as the ant kept to a straight line. So this space is finite: it does not go on forever. The next experiment the ant attempts is to walk parallel to another ant. They both start out side-by-side on the basketball’s “equator,” and agree to walk “north.” Once they decide this, they start out walkingparallel in the north direction, but agree not to look at each other—just their compasses. Some time later, they bump into each other. Each suspects the other of deviating, while knowing that they themselves did not. In fact, neither deviated from a straight line (Figure 2B). But Euclid’s relationships don’t hold on this curved space. Parallel straight lines will always converge on a sphere. In this case, the convergence would be at the “north pole.” (Take a look at how the lines of longitude converge at the north pole of a globe, despite starting out parallel at the equator and each representing perfectly “straight” great-circle paths.) The last experiment the frustrated ant tries is to verify that the three angles inside a triangle add to 180◦. The ant starts at the north pole, walks in a straight line south to the equator, turns right (90◦) to follow the equator, walks a quarter of the way around the equator, then turns right again (90◦) to head back to the north pole. On reaching the north pole, the ant finds that the angle that its current path makes to the original path from the pole is 90◦, so that the three interior angles of this “straight-line” triangle add to 270◦—much bigger than the expected result (Figure 2C). The lesson is that the rules of Euclidean geometry don’t hold on curved spaces. The analogy to our universe is as follows. If our universe has so-called positive curvature, then any straight line ultimately comes back on itself, parallel lines ultimately converge, and angles within a triangle add to something greater than 180◦. Now it should be pointed out that had the ant on the basketball performed the triangle (or parallel line) experiment over a very small and confined region of the basketball, Euclidean geometry would have appeared to work to a high degree of precision. By analogy, the earth looks pretty flat over small distances. We know that the universe is very large—because we see new and different stuff in every direction for a long way. So in our tiny local region, things look pretty flat. But is the large-scale universe curved? This 4Figure 3: Possible geometries of the universe, in two-dimensional analog. has been an open question in cosmology, and we’re finally gaining some resolution. 3.2 Types of Curved Universes To motivate more concretely the notion that the universe is curved, I mentioned above that Einstein’s theory of general relativity produces spacetime curvature—in fact, it produces positive curvature—like that of a closed sphere. So the question of “how much curvature” boils down to “how much matter is there in the universe?” We know that the universe is expanding, based on galaxy redshifts. Since matter is gravitationally attracted to itself, the presence of matter in the universe may be sufficient to slow—even halt and reverse—this expansion. In other words, the presence of mass applies brakes to the expansion. But is there enough matter present to halt the expansion? Enough to reverse it? In a universe that contains only gravitating matter and empty space, the question of the fate of the universe and the type of curvature are intimately related. A universe with more than enough matter in it to halt the expansion has enough matter to make it positively curved on the whole. This type of universe would wrap back onto itself. Like the ant traveling in a straight line and coming back to the same spot, so we would come back to earth if we flew a straight line in a rocket for a very, very long time. Other properties of positive curvature would also be present: parallel lines would eventually converge, and triangle angles would add to greater than 180◦ (the larger the triangle, the greater the deviation—like on the surface of the basketball). Besides these geometrical properties, this “closed” universe would ultimately turn back on itself and experience a Big Crunch when it all came back together. Figure 3 shows the possible geometries, with the closed geometry on top. On the other extreme, if the amount of matter in the universe is insufficient to halt the expansion, the resulting geometry has a net negative curvature. This is harder to visualize, but the properties are that it goes on indefinitely (you would not wrap back on yourself if traveling in this space), parallel lines now diverge, and triangle angles add to less than 180◦. The best visualization I can offer here is that of a Pringle’s potato chip: saddle-shaped. This kind of surface has all the right geometrical properties, if for instance an ant were to do similar experiments to what it did on the sphere. The only catch is that you have to imagine a Pringle of infinite extent (yum). The negatively curved universe is said to be “open,” as it is infinite in extent, and will never re-collapse. It will continue to expand forever. The existence of matter may slow down (decelerate) this expansion, but it will never be enough to stop it. Precariously balanced between these two extremes is a flat universe. A flat universe has just the right amount of matter to exactly balance the expansion, so that ultimately the universe’s expansion will exactly stop (as time marches toward infinity). In this case, there is no net curvature, and Euclidean geometry holds across the infinite extent of the universe. Though seemingly impossibly tuned to have just the right amount 5of matter (not a teaspoon more or less), this has been a favorite of theoretical cosmologists because they think this condition would have been automatically satisfied the way the universe started. If the universe is close to being flat, but not precisely so, then it has some net curvature, but this curvature may be hardly noticeable. This is analogous to saying that the effects of earth’s curved surface are not very noticeable over small scales (like on a soccer field), while the soccer ball is very noticeably curved. In otherwords, a universe that is positively curved, but very large, will appear pretty flat on the small part we can see. It is very difficult to unambiguously tell the difference between these scenarios through our observations of the universe—though we have been surprisingly successful at setting limits on this curvature using the CMB. Geometry Summarized If the universe is composed only of gravitating matter and the empty space in between, then the geometry of space—positive curvature, flat, or negative curvature—is intimately connected with the amount of matter in the universe. This is also then connected with its fate. A nice verbal relationship exists to sum this up: a positive-curvature universe is said to be closed (finite) and is both finite in spatial extent (wraps back onto itself) and in the time domain (will ultimately re-collapse). A negatively curved universe is said to be open, and extends infinitely in both time and space. The flat case is a special, limiting case of the open scenario—it too is infinite in extent and will go on forever in time, but only just so. The Universe As We See It In an effort to determine the matter density of the universe, and thus its ultimate fate and geometry, as-tronomers for many years pursued a measurement of the deceleration of the matter in the universe. The logic was that if any matter existed at all (and clearly it does), the net gravitational effect between all bodies in the universe would apply the brakes to the expansion, slowing down its rate. The effect is relatively small, and it took a very long time to be able to make any measurement. Finally, in the late 1990’s, two independent teams of physicists and astronomers had managed to make a measurement using the light from a special type of supernova (exploding star) thought to act as a “standard candle”—having the same intrinsic brightness no matter when and where in the universe it happened. The result they found was startling. The data thatstared them in the face proclaimed that the universe is actually accelerating presently! It’s as if the balloon is being blown up more rapidly today than yesterday. Nobody (well, practically nobody) had anticipated this possibility. But this provides an example of the triumph of measurement over theory. You can’t argue with measurement. (Well, you can, actually, and should. You should make sure the measurement is valid and that you aren’t being fooled by other effects that you have not yet considered. And believe me, this surprising data has been challenged extensively.) In a moment of severe whiplash in the astro physical community, we suddenly had a huge mystery on our hands. If the universe is accelerating, what’s pushing it apart? Why isn’t gravity working like we thought it should? These sorts of challenges crop up in science from time-to-time, forcing its practitioners to take a hard look at their fundamental assumptions. This is a very healthy process, and it gives me great hope in humanity that we, as humans, do not cling maniacally to a dearly held belief when new evidence points to the contrary. Lest you think that these revolutions “undo” any of the previous measurements and experience from the past, let me assure you that the entire body of measurement and observation stands. The revolution is on the side of theory, whose job it is to explain the collection of empirical data in a self-consistent way. These revolutions typically make it clear that we simply didn’t have the full theoretical picture, or that we can’t get away with an over-simplified view. Around the same time as the discovery of the universe’s acceleration, astrophysicists looking at the afterglow of the Big Bang (called the cosmic microwave background: CMB, or also the surface of last scattering) were intent on measuring the shape of our space. They could do this because they could predict in great detail what kinds of structures existed at this stage in the universe’s development, when it was 6only 380,000 years old. By structures I just mean temperature variations (departures from uniformity)—or “structure” in the density/temperature of the early plasma. They knew, in effect, how large the largest structures could have become in that time—in real units like meters! Given this, and also armed with the knowledge of how far the surface of last scattering is, the apparent angular size of these blobs on the sky then tells us what kind of geometry we live in. Are we drawing this long, skinny triangle on a positively-curved space, like a basketball, on a negative potato-chip, or in plain Euclidean flat space. The answer—much to the delight of many theorists—came out to be that space is flat. If we quantify this in terms of the amount of matter required to make for a flat universe, the answer came out to indicate the critical density within 2%. In other words, if the universe had too much stuff, it would have positive curvature. Too little stuff and it would have negative curvature. We appear to be in the “just right” scenario, to pretty high precision. A third leg of evidence supported both by measuring masses of huge clusters of galaxies, and also from secondary “structure” in the CMB indicates that the universe only has 30% of the gravitating matter necessary to flatten the universe. How could this be consistent with the previous CMB finding that we were within 2% of the magic value? The answer is in the subtle use of the word “gravitating” above. It turns out that 70% of the total mass-energy (i.e., stuff) in the universe is of a non-gravitating form. We call this “dark energy” because we can’t see it, it’s not matter, and we frankly have no idea what the stuff is. But it’s the stuff that is responsible for the acceleration of the universe—it’s pushing us apart. Thanks to astrophysical measurements, we now know exactly how much dark energy, dark matter, and ordinary matter exist in the universe. But we still don’t know what any of the “dark” stuff actually is. Ideas abound, but no one pays close attention to ideas unless they suggest additional tests or measurements that can support or refute them. What Does It All Mean? This is mind-blowing stuff, to be sure. We’re talking about the geometry of space, and suddenly we find out that it is indeed flat, but that there are constituents in the universe that we know very little about. It’s confusing, and may sound even absurd (more like fantasy or science fiction than science). But scientists are serious about this. It’s hard to drag along a skeptical bunch like scientists on a wild ride like this without an awful lot of experimental evidence. Many scientists are still uncomfortable with this surprising new landscape. But almost all acknowledge that we’re faced with striking measurements that will likely radically change our fundamental understanding of what makes up the universe. To talk concretely about the meaning of these observations, let me answer some common questions that always come up in mind: Is the universe infinite in extent? If the geometry of the universe is indeed flat, as we measure it to be, then yes: the universe goes on forever. This doesn’t mean that we can see the whole universe, though. We can only see about 13.7 billion light years away in any direction. So the universe is finite if we can only see so far, right? These are unrelated things. Because light travels at a finite speed (albeit fast), when we look far away, we look back in time. When we look 13.7 billion light years away, we see the universe as it existed near the time of its birth. There are no stars or galaxies there yet. A being sitting at that point in the present day would find themselves in a setting that looks much like the one around earth today. If they looked back toward earth, they would see our local environment as it was 13.7 billion years ago—long before the sun or even our galaxy formed. We would be the limit of their vision: the edge of their visible universe; their CMB. You could play this game forever: at each horizon edge, the universe looks normal, and there is a new horizon in all directions. Imagine the universe as a huge ocean. In the ocean, you can only see so far due to the cloudy water (maybe several tens of meters). It doesn’t mean that stuff doesn’t exist outside of the visible horizon. If we can look 13.7 billion light years away, shouldn’t we see the Big Bang? Yes! And in fact, we do! Only light isn’t free to travel through empty space until all the electrons are moved out of the way. So as the hot plasma emerging from the Big Bang cooled, ultimately things settled out enough so that electrons could pair up with Hydrogen and Helium nuclei, so that the plasma became neutral. Now light could stream freely across the universe. This is what we see in the CMB: it is the plasma afterglow of the Big Bang, seen about 380,000 years after the universe started—just cool enough to have become neutral. We see it in every direction 13.7 billion light years away as an almost perfectly uniform microwave glow. Truly its amazing, really. If we know the universe is flat to 2% precision, is there room for error? Absolutely. All we are prepared to say for now is that over 13.7 billion light year scales, the universe looks pretty flat: it doesn’t deviate by more than 2% from being flat. But, the possibility exists that the universe is still curved on much larger scales. It’s just like the fact that the earth looks flat locally, over small scales, but is curved on the whole. The universe could be closed into a sphere, but on a much larger scale than what we can see. A 2% limit translates to a factor of 50 (it takes 50 2%’s to make 100%), so we could say that if the universe is finite, it must be at least 50 times bigger than our 13.7 billion light year horizon. Now Finally! What is the ultimate fate of the universe? Ten years ago, the answer would have simply been that it depends on how much matter is in the universe. If the universe had critical density, it would expand forever, but eventually come to a stop infinitely far out into the future. But it was already looking like there was too little matter to do this, so the universe would expand forever. Now things are more complicated. Even though we think the universe is flat, it has too little gravitating matter to halt the expansion, and moreover, seems to have a dark energy that is accelerating this expansion. Under this scenario, the universe will in essence blow itself apart. But it takes a long time (tens of billions of years), so don’t pack your bags yet. Things seem uncertain now . Is the fate of the universe also uncertain? For sure it is. Until we understand what this dark energy is, we won’t be able to predict with any certainty how it will evolve as the universe ages. If things don’t change, the above scenario will hold. It’s our best guess in the absence of a complete understanding. But as a consequence of the recent series of fantastic measurements, we can say more now than ever before about what we think will happen. What does this mean for humanity? Why should I care? Great!? You may not care. You may not find this to be relevant to your life. That’s one of the great things about our lives: we get to choose what we are interested in, and pursue it. But in general, humans have always been curious about origins. Though not every human will be interested in dinosaurs, as a whole we are certainly intrigued, and have learned much from studying them. Science is the process of looking to our surroundings to see what we can learn about how we got here. Recent astrophysical observations are painting a rich story that we simply can’t ignore. Nor do we want to. How it will affect humanity in the very long term is an open question. Does it change the way you live your life or treat others if you know that the universe is a transient thing?—that it will one day expand itself to oblivion? Does it change the frequency of religious wars on this planet if in 500 years we all share a common creation story? At this point, this is more complicated than predicting the fate of the universe. Humans are frighteningly complex! Life in the Universe I am no expert on life in the universe. There is a new and growing field of science called astrobiology that delves into the requirements for life, and explores the extremities in which life on the earth has been able to thrive. This direction of exploration may then define for us how likely it is that life—however simple—could exist on other planets, in comets, etc. But we can at least explore an aspect of the question of additional life in the universe based on what we know about the universe. Does life exist elsewhere in the universe? Let’s play the numbers game. Our galaxy is composed of roughly 100 billion stars. How many of these stars have planets? We’re finding that quite a few do! We already know of over 100 stars aside from our sun that have at least one planet. the numbers are: 146 planetary systems; 170 planets; 18 multiple-planet systems (as many as 4 in some systems). At present, we can only detect large Jupiter-like planets in orbits that are relatively close to their stars: these produce the strongest tugs on the parent stars, which is what we measure. But it appears that a substantial fraction of stars—at least 5%—have planets. As our detection techniques improve, we may find many smaller planets and find that indeed most stars have planets. Right now, we would not be able to detect our own set of planets around another star using current techniques. Yet we know we are here. This means solar systems much like our own are still beyond our detection limits. Putting the number of stars in our galaxy together with an estimate that 10% of stars have earth-sized planets (just a guess), we get that 10 billion stars in our galaxy alone harbor earth-like planets. By earth-like, I just mean rocky planets with masses comparable to earth’s mass. Not all of these earth-like planets will be in the “habitable zone” where we see life in our solar system. Example: Venus is too hot, Mars is too cold, though both are “earth-like” by the definition above. Let’s say only 1% of these earth-like planets happen to be in the “Goldilocks” just-right zone. Now we have as many as 100 million habitable planets in our galaxy. We don’t know yet how rare life is. With only one planet to guide us, the estimates cover a huge range. But let’s say for the sake of argument that the chances for life to form are a remote one-in-a-million given a habitable planet. Some would argue that it’s closer to near certainty that life (we’re talking single-cell organisms here) forms. But with the pessimistic long-shot odds of one in a million, that still gives 100 instances in our galaxy. Now hold onto your seats. There are approximately 100 billion galaxies within our 13.7-billion-light-year horizon. So now we have 10 trillion instances of life in our universe given the harsh one-in-a-million odds. Hard to imagine this not panning out. But wait, there’s more. Our visible universe is but a small portion of the entire universe, We know the universe is at least 50 times the size of the visible universe within our horizon.But this is in linear size—radius, or diameter. In volume, the universe is then at least 503 = 125, 000 times larger in volume than our visible volume. Assuming physics looks the same outside our horizon, there are now about a quintillion, or 1018 instances of life in the entire universe, as a lower limit! Our estimates could be off here and there; they are very rough. But it is hard to reduce a number this big to zero (or one, since we’re here, at least) by revising estimates of probabilities. The sheer size of our universe and the resulting number of stars and planets is so absolutely staggering so as to overcome the long odds for developing life. One other aspect we haven’t reflected on is the enormity of time over which life has to develop. We can’t really easily grasp time periods longer than maybe 1,000 years. Yet it takes 1,000 of these periods to constitute one million years, which is still short on geological timescales. It would take 1,000 of these one-million-year periods to make one billion years. The universe is 13.7 billion years old, and we find fossil evidence of simple life on the 4.5-billion-year-old earth as far back as about 3.5 billion years. Interestingly, the earth was not very hospitable when it was young. It may have taken only (only!!) a few hundred million years for life to form once the earth was a calm and hospitable neighborhood. Even this geologically short period is sooooo long that it is truly impossible for our brains to take it in—much like how we started in comprehending the vast size of the universe. Intelligent life is another beast altogether. It’s a long road from simple organisms to pigs and things. But nature provides a self-ratcheting mechanism to constantly push the developmental arms race toward greater 9complexity. I’m talking here about natural selection. But by now I have strayed far from physics, and should leave this topic for your continued ponderings. DARK MATTER By Rohit Sharma INTRODUCTION The search for the origin of the universe has taken us deeper and deeper into the heart of the micro element world. Gazing into the heavens makes it hard to believe, that the universe we perceive as so unbelievably clear and transparent, is in reality very dense. That is to say the distance between particles in space are equal distance of particles in matter of what we perceive as a solid on Earth. Modern theories accept that our universe is comprised of macro and micro mass. Many scientists assume that all this matter came from a BIG BANG, Logic may posit the birth of the universe not a vast array of thermal grandeur but rather a meager whimper a sequence of consequence. Many scientists now believe the universe is a closed system and that DARK MATTER is filling this universe. In astrophysics, dark matter refers to undetectable matter or particles whose presence explains unexpected gravitational effects on galaxies and stars. Various assumptions were made on the composition of dark matter: Molecular gas, Dead stars, Brown dwarf stars, Black holes, etc However, the observations (or rather lack of direct observations) would imply a non-baryonic nature (proton, neutro), and thus still unknown nature. According to galaxies formation and evolution models as well as cosmological models, dark matter would represent approximately 30% of the total mass of the Universe. Starting from the number of stars’ and galaxies’ revolutions (on the cluster level), it is possible to measure the mass of the dark matter, and to deduce its distribution. A great quantity of this matter should be within the galaxies, not in the galactic disc but in the form of a halo including the galaxy. Indeed, this configuration allows a stability of the galactic disc. Moreover, certain galaxies have rings perpendicular to the disc and composed of gas, dust and stars. There, the halo of matter would explain the formation and stability required. On the other hand, it is impossible that the dark matter be in the galactic disc, due to the fact that we should then observe an oscillation perpendicular to the disc in the stars movement (which is not the case). The study of satellite galaxies (small galaxies turning around other galaxies) obliges to think of very wide halos: approximately 200 or 300 kpc. By comparison, the Sun is located at approximately 8, 6 kpc center of our galaxy. The galaxy of Andromeda – galaxy nearest to us – is located at 725 kpc, that is to say a little more of the double of the halo radius of our galaxy. These halos could be common between close galaxies. Dark matter composition research – Ordinary matter Scientists turned initially to ordinary matter (baryon) for their research and reviewed all the types of particles which could contribute to this gravitational field, such as gas clouds, dead stars or black holes. What are Gas clouds? In the 1990’s, precise cartographies of the universe x-rays emission sources – gathered thanks to the Rose Satellite – highlighted the presence of gigantic ionized gas clouds within galaxy clusters; clouds of several million degrees non-emitting in the visible field. Moreover, these clouds seemed to contain ten times more matter (at least, luminous matter) than the galaxies of these clusters. Was this finally the missing matter? Unfortunately not. On the contrary, these clouds are the proof of the presence of dark matter around the galaxies. Indeed, to reach such temperatures, the particles constituting the cloud must be accelerated at very high speeds (approximately 300 km/s), and this acceleration comes from the force of gravitation. However the quantity of gas is insufficient to generate such a gravity field. Similarly, the stars alone cannot prevent the gas cloud from escaping. The gravitational influence of the dark matter is then necessary to explain the containment of these clouds near the galaxies. Moreover, the shapes of these clouds are helping the astronomers and astrophysicist in their research to determine the dark matter’s distribution in the neighbourhood. Black Holes? Much more massive than MACHO or stars, black holes could have been good candidates. Some of them reach a mass of 10.000 solar masses (in particular super massifs black holes, in galaxy’s centers). However, it would be necessary to have nearly a million of such black holes in a galaxy to fill the lack of matter; a too large number knowing the effect of black holes on neighboring stars. Indeed, black holes sometime cross the galactic disc and disturb the movement of stars. With such a number of black holes, the movements of these stars would be strongly amplified, which would make the galactic disk thicker than what is currently observed. Remain the stellar black holes (a few solar masses), not easily detectable, and the black holes of a few tens or hundreds of solar masses, whose nature of formation has not been explained yet. In all cases, the track of black holes as being the famous dark matter was abandoned, and the astronomers are leaning on the no baryonic matter type. Dark matter composition research – No baryon matter The Big-bang model makes it possible to calculate the number of baryons in the Universe, i.e. the number of helium 4 and hydrogen atoms, formed at the time of the primary nucleosynthesis. The astronomers calculated that baryon matter amount for approximately 4% of the critical density. However, to explain the flat geometry of the Universe, the Universe’s total matter must be of 30% of the critical density (the remaining 70% being dark energy). 26% of the critical density is then missing. Those 26% would be constituted of other particles those baryons. First observational evidence of dark matter In 1933, Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky of Caltech decided to study a small group of seven galaxies in the Coma Cluster. Its objective was to calculate the total mass of this cluster by studying the speed (or rather the dispersion speeds) of these seven galaxies. By using Newton laws, he calculated its mass ‘dynamic mass’, then compared it with the ‘luminous mass’, which is the mass calculated from the quantity of light emitted by the cluster (by making to the assumption of a reasonable distribution of the star population in the galaxies). The dispersion speeds (or in other words, how the speed of these 7 galaxies differed from each other) is directly related to the cluster’s mass. In fact, a star cluster can be compared with a gas, where the particles would be galaxies. If the gas is hot and light, the dispersion speed of the particles is high. In the extreme case, the particles which have a sufficient speed leave the gas (evaporation). If the gas is cold and heavy, the dispersion speed is weak. Zwicky was surprised to note that the speeds observed in the Coma Cluster were very high. The dynamic mass was 400 times larger than the luminous mass! At the time, the methods and the precision of measurements were not accurate enough to be neglected. Moreover, massive objects such as brown dwarf, white dwarf, neutron stars , black holes and in general of poorly non radiating objects were little known. And same for interstellar dust and molecular gas. Zwicky announced its observation to its fellows, but they were not interested. Zwicky’s reputation was not so good due to a strong character and its measurements were criticized due to measurement uncertainties. The same phenomenon was again observed in 1936 by Sinclair Smith during the calculation of the Virgo Cluster’s total dynamic mass. This one was 200 times more important than Edwin Hubble’s estimate. According to Smith, is could be explained by the presence of matter between the galaxies of the cluster. Moreover, the galaxy clusters were still considered by a great number of astronomers as of temporary structures rather than of stable structures. This explanation was enough to justify excessive speeds. At the time, astronomers had other ‘more imporant’questions to solve (such as the expansion of the Universe) and the question of this difference between the dynamic and luminous mass was let aside for several decades. Dark matter between galaxies? The movements of galaxies within the clusters showed similar problems than with the rotation of stars in galaxies. This suggests the presence of dark matter between the galaxies; although nothing proves yet that these two problems are related. On a galaxy scale, the dark matter rate would be up to 10 times that of the luminous matter, but on the clusters’ level, it would be much more important: up to 30 times the “visible” mass of these clusters. In 1996, astrophysicist Yannick Mellier and his team decided to measure the quantity of dark matter in all the Universe and to draw up a chart of its distribution between the galaxy clusters. The method used was to make a large scale statistical study of the galaxy deformation due to gravitational interaction of dark matter existing between the Earth and these clusters. This gravitational intercation is visible as it deviates the luminous rays sent by the galaxies (their image arrives deformed). A statistical study on a very large scale (the area of the sky studied was the apparent size of the moon and on a depth of 5 billion light-years) made it possible to neglect the local deformations due to other galaxy clusters. This study led in March 2000 to the a cartography. The dark matter takes the shape of long intersecting filaments. The quantity of matter of the universe should represent one third of that needed to reach the critical density, the remainder made up of dark energy. A new similar study is in hand, always by the team of Yannick Mellier, with this time a larger CCD camera, allowing the study of 20 times the previous field of view. Dark matter composition research – The neutrino The neutrino is a particle introduced for the first time in 1930 by Wolfgang Pauli, before the discovery of the neutron (one year later), and which was detected in 1956 by Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan. This particle – insensitive to electromagnetic forces and strong nuclear force – is emitted during a beta desintregration, along with an electron. The neutrino doesn’t interacts much with other particles, which makes it a good candidate for dark matter. The mass of the neutrino was considered very small, even null. With the problem of the missing mass of the Universe, the physicists wondered if the neutrino would have a nonzero mass. Especially as the neutrino is the most abundant particle in the universe, after the photon. However, the experiments Super-Kamiokande and SNO (Sudbury Observatory Neutrino) revealed a too small mass to consider that this particle would constitute the dark matter. The neutrinos could represent, at best, 18% of the niverse’s total mass. Dark matter composition research – WIMP The WIMP (Weakly interactive massive particles) form a class of heavy particles, interacting slightly with matter, and constitute excellent candidates with the nonbaryonic dark matter. The neutralino postulated by the supersymetric extensions of the standard model of particle physics. The idea of supersymmetry is to associate each boson to a fermion and vice versa. Each particle is then given a super-partner, having identical properties (mass, load), but with a spin which differes by 1/2. Thus, the number of particles is doubled. For example, the photon is accompanied by a photino, the graviton by a gravitino, the electron of a selectron, etc. Following the impossibility to detect a 511 keV boson (the electron partner), the physicists had to re-examine the idea of an exact symmetry. Symmetry is ‘broken’ and superpartners have a very important mass. One of these superparticules called LSP (Lightest Supersymmetric Particle) is the lightest of all. In most of the supersymmetric theories (without violation of the R-parity) the LSP is a stable particle because it cannot disintegrate in a lighter element. It is of neutral color and electric charge and is then only sensitive to weak interaction (weak nuclear force). It is then an excellent candidate for the not-baryonic dark matter. First observational evidence of dark matter It is only 40 years later, in 1970, that the question of the existence of this dark matter reappeared. Starting from the analysis of the spectra of galaxies, the American astronomer Vera Rubin studied the rotation of spiral galaxies. The problem was the same as the comparison between the dynamic and the luminous mass of the galaxy clusters. It was a question of knowing if “luminous mass”, i.e. the mass which is calculated from the presence of stars, is relatively equal (except for some corrections) to the dynamic mass. It should be noted that the dynamic mass is normally the only true mass, as it is a measurement of the mass deduced from its gravitational influence. Any mass being subjected to gravitation, there is no reason to think that the dynamic mass observed is false. It is not as simple for the luminous mass. To measure the latter, the assumption is made that all the mass of the galaxy (or the galaxy cluster) is made of stars. These stars radiate, and if one knows (but it is very difficult) their distribution (mass, number, age, etc), the visible light is then a good way to determine the mass. By analyzing the spiral galaxies’ spectrum such as the Andromeda Galaxy (which section is visible), it is possible to calculate the curve from its rotation. The curve of rotation describes the number of revolutions of the galaxy according to the distance to the center. This curve of rotation is a direct measurement of the total distribution of matter in the galaxy. The maximum speed of rotation of a spiral galaxy is located at a distance of a few kiloparsecs from the center. It is then supposed to decrease, following a Keplerian decrease. Indeed, the stars at the periphery of the galaxy are in orbit around the center (in the same way as planets orbit around the Sun). The stars in periphery of the galaxy thus turn less quickly than those closer to the center. The curve of rotation, after a maximum, starts to go decrease again. However, Vera Rubin observed that the stars located at the periphery of the Andromeda Galaxy – as for other spiral galaxies – appeared to rotate too fast (speed remained almost constant when the distance to the center increased). The curve of rotation of spiral galaxies (some of them) was flat. Speed did not decrease whereas one moved away from the center. Many other similar observations were carried out in the 1980s, reinforcing those of Vera Rubin. These observations raised deep questions, because the curve of rotation is a good measure of the dynamic mass. No assumption about the age or the stars’ mass distribution is necessary A possible explanation was to think of the existence of a huge nonvisible matter halo surrounding the galaxies; a halo which would represent up to 90% of the galaxy’s total mass. Thus all the stars are almost in the center of the true extension of the “galaxy” (this time made up of the visible galaxy and the matter halo), and thus rotate normally. In other words, the stars located at the visible periphery of the galaxy, are not “far enough” from the center to decrease the curve of rotation. It still remains to directly observe this famous matter to confirm that it is the right explanation. The presence of dark matter is one of the possible explanations. It has the immense advantage of being simple and of going in the good direction. Indeed, the astronomers suspected that galaxies contain non-luminous stars (such as dwarf brown, dwarf white, black holes, neutron stars) which could represent a large part of the total mass of the galaxy, but which is not visible with optical instruments. The observation of spiral galaxies in other wavelengths (in order to better characterize the presence of not very luminous objects in the visible field) was one of the major efforts of astronomy to research and understand the problem. Dark matter composition Hot black matter and cold black matter Two main theories clash when they try to describe the nature of this dark matter: hot dark matter and cold dark matter. Those theories rely on the mass and speed of the particles composing the dark matter. In the case of the dark matter known as “hot”, the particles have speeds close to light, while the particles of black matter known as “cold” would be more massive and thus slower. The speed of these particles is crucial to the Big Bang model of cosmology and the order of formation of the Universe’s great structures. If the Universe cmopostiion is primarly made of hot dark matter, the very high speed of the particles would initially prevent the formation of a structure smaller than the supercluster of galaxies dividing up in galaxy cluster then in galaxies, then in smaller structures. It is the scenario known as “up bottom”, since the largest structures are formed initially, for then dividing. The best candidate to constitute the hot dark matter is the neutrino. On the other hand, if the cold dark matter is the main component of the Universe, the particles will go on a smaller distance and thus will erase the density’s fluctuations on extents smaller than in the case of hot dark matter. The ordinary matter would then gather to form galaxies (starting from gas clouds and smaller structures), which themselves will gather in cluster, then supercluster. It is the scenario known as ” bottom up”. The candidates for cold dark matter are WIMP and MACHO. These two theories were defended by Yakov Borisovitch Zeldovitch for the hot dark matter, and James Peebles for the cold dark matter. Currently, it is the cold dark matter model which seems to be the more consistent. Indeed, the galaxies are in a dynamic balance, which shows that they were created before the clusters (all do not seem stable yet). However, the current theory introduces a little bit of hot dark matter as it is necessary to explain the formation of galaxy clusters. Dark matter composition research – A useless assumption? More and more astronomers and astrophysicists think that dark matter does not exist. Rather than to search an explanation of the anomalies by an unobservable unobserved matter, it would more judicious to re-examine the physical laws constituting the standard model, and which are also questioned by even more fundamental problems. It would then be possible to solve several problems at The string theory and axions Some astrophysicists turn for example to the of the string theory. The string theory adds six new dimensions to the four usual ones (three dimensions of space and one dimension for time) and would place the dark matter in these new dimensions which are inaccessible for us; explaining why it would not be detectable. The electromagnetic and nuclear forces (strong and weak) would be confined in our four dimensions and could not leave them. On the other hand, the gravitation could disperse in other dimensions, and then drop in intensity compared to the other forces. Another theoretical particle, the axion, which would be extra-light (1 µeV), stable and which wouldn’t interact much with matter – a then practically undetectable particle – would make another good candidate for dark matter. This particle would solve problems arising from the antimatter (why matter won over antimatter). Various programs were launched since 1996 to try to detect axions. Star-gazing isn’t all about horoscopes and other fortune hullabaloo. Beyond trying to predict the future and guessing whether you’ll be lucky for tomorrow’s round of poker games with friends, astronomy is a deep study on cosmic bodies and phenomenon. Take dark matter for instance. Fundamental Particles If I may call them weakly interactive minuscule particles. The innermost secrets of matter are hidden in the world of quantum elements, these units form fundamental particles (fmp)\ Much of what is visible and non-visible in space is becoming more comprehensible. Men and women have managed great strides forming understandings, regarding celestial formations. Theoretically we have extracted two major non-visual particles, while not being subject to their physical existence to the extent of certainty, and by rationality present a philosophical foundation for science and evolutionary trends, as proof by logic and by reasoned pursuit of the senses. Their presence is inferred indirectly by the motion and effect on celestial objects, e.g. stars, galaxies and cluster galaxies. These fm particles compose all matter and the laws of physics they obey also apply to the local universe all inclusive. When measuring velocities in a region, sufficient mass must be present to restrain these objects from avulse conduct. Tracking their footprints we will uncover two minuscular matter structures as dark matter, representing about 45% + of the total mass in our local universe, the remaining 55% as potential rest energy (quantum thermal units*) These fundamental particles invisible to our technology shoulder the creation and stability of the local universe. This is the “dark matter”, I will refer to as fundamental particles. To presuppose that fundamental particles are a natural conception of our every day observations of matter, is in mans’ nature. The concept that there exist, interactive particles as the building blocks of all matter, stable and obey the laws of physics, and suggest that these particles will exhibit numerous functions, possess mass and be related to the general matter structure, does follow logic. Define fundamental particle as dark matter. The fundamental particles (fmp) are the fundamental building blocks of matter in a local universe these particles are a structure of more than one quantum thermal unit* this term describes particles with a structure which can not be broken down to form other particles. By definition a fmp can decay with a gradual reduction in the quantity of heat. Note: In scientific terms the smallest constituents or basic building blocks of all particles are pre or quantum particles (heat units) they pervade all space inclusive. To suggest a few fundamental particle Functions? 1—- fundamental particles (fmp), will not break down and succumb to the overwhelming weight pressures of a black hole’s critical mass. Fundamental particles consist of three flavors, negative, positive and neutral. Dark matter and PRE* represent 95 to 99% as the non-integrated mass (heat) and the remaining 1 to 5% as baryon matter or specific heat units (specific heat units are a coalescence of positive, negative and neutral fmps). 2 —Fmp negative form a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, isometric, homogeneous, permeate and immerse all matter and assist to define the magnitude of a local universe with their volume inflation, The 90% + non-conjugated negatively charged fmp can not bind, have no partner, have no motion, isometric, homogeneous and rest as close as determined by their negative charge or flavor. 3—-the neutral particle is instrumental in the construction of plasma and must rest in an adjacent formation. Sequentially vast quantities of contactual neutral particles are needed to simply fill the volume and implement a route for thermal transference in the local universe. 4—Dark matter defines the perimeter of the local universe by its volume inflation. 5—Fmp assist in the formation of black holes, exerting pressure by means of the 3 dimensional geometrical lattice with all immersed contents therein. 6—Black hole fragmentation and a monumental fmp envelopment of each critical mass fragment, prolongs super inflation, allowing the fragments deeper penetration into space. This super inflation subserve seeding numerous sub-sectors of both the local and greater universe. 7—Fmp- and fmpn must be harmonious with all the macro mass in the local universe. Soon after black hole fragmentation and super inflation positive fundamental particles coalesce with one or both of the fmp- and fmp neutral. The remaining fmp- and fmpn without any possibilities of pairing, acquire an non assertive mode. 8—Fmp must be stable and long lasting, life as we know depends on their stability. 9—They are a rest mass (very little motion), able to transfer thermal information. 10—Dark matter permeates the air we breathe, the water we drink, us, earth, sun, galaxies and the local universe all inclusive. Black holes construct conditions that integrate all matter and form a region of space that has concentrated mass. Under extreme weight and external dark matter pressure black holes accrete fmp (dark matter) and alters their shape. At this pressure all molecules are reduced to their fundamental flavored state, as positive, negative and neutral particles. This critical mass condition compels the expulsion of all (+ -) potential rest energy units (quantum heat units) from the mass. How do fmp- function? The remaining fundamental negative particles are now non-conjugal and quiescent in this isometric lattice. In possession of near zero thermal value, no spin and no motion we may call them matter at rest. These fmp- form a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, each particle occupying a point in the local universe. Synoptically set up this FMP- in a geometric formation from which they can not diverge and now are an interlocked force that can not be altered and are emersed in a neutral plasma. Let us use our solar system to demonstrate;- Let us posit, that the lattice and plasma are elliptical, isometric, and homogeneous, permeate and immerse all matter. Now imagine a rotating solar system afloat in a plasma sea and immersed in this sphere of dark matter are the sun, planets and all lesser matter. What we have established is a direct link between all macro matter, in a contactual sea of fundamental particles and in unison with the pre plasma binds every object in the solar system. Conceivable possibilities. All orbiting mass is permeated and immersed in dark matter and pre plasma fields. I believe the planets permeated and emersed in these plasmas are static buoyant bodies that float in elliptical whirl pool matrixes. All spinning macro matter, influence the fields to adopt a whirl-like motion, unlike a whirlpool it does not initiate a central coalescence effect to the whirling or orbiting matter. Now let us broaden our lattice to include all the matter within this entire universal sector to the periphery. What we have established is a direct influence with every object in the local universe a sector of the greater universe. The lattice and the plasmas (fmp and pre) bind all objects and rotate the sector as a unit. The hypothesis of natural conceptions are that celestial and galactic structures, exhibit numerous functions related to general matter structure of everyday observations. The concept that the solar system and galaxies rotate and they obey the laws of physics, it does follow logic, to assume that the local universe rotates likewise. Conceptions and natural observations have developed a hypothesis that these minuscule matter structures inferred as”dark matter”, is a predominate substance in the universe. The effects and presence are inferred indirectly through the motions of celestial objects. Dark matter is comprised of three particles, a positive, negative and neutral and these fundamental particles represent about 45 % of all the matter in the local universe. Baryon matter comprises about 1 to 5% of the total matter in the greater universe. The remaining 95 to 99% is referred to as dark matter and potential rest energy (PRE).\ Fmp- and fmp+ comprise about 30 to 40% of the dark matter. These are divided again about 95% fmp- and the remaining 5% are fmp+.\ Neutral particles comprise about 60 to 70% of the dark matter. These percentages may change some what, as they are hypothetical. Why this disparity? With so few positively charged fundamental particles this provides effortless propagation and reinforces the theory of the visual amount of baryon matter we are able to observe. The remaining non-conjugated negatively charged fmp cannot bind, have no motion and rest as close as determined by their negative charge or flavor. Their objective now is to form a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, isometric, homogeneous, permeate and immerse all matter, in conjunction with neutral plasma and pre, define the magnitude of the local universe with their volume inflation. How is a lattice constructed? The initial “black hole eruption” scatters large fragments randomly every which way. This process of fragmentation is repeated many times each successive explosion results in smaller fragments (each containing millions of galaxies) hurled at random into a PRE filled greater universe. A monumental fmp envelopment of each critical mass fragment prolongs the initiation of super inflation and allow these fragments deeper penetration into the G.U. While fragments are hurling through G.U. they disperse a misty trail of dark matter and sub serve seeding numerous sectors forming a local universe. Immediately upon “critical mass breach” fmp begin to desert and disperse, released of the extreme external pressure the surface layers are easily expelled at a furious frenzy, spreading a mist of dark matter as these critical mass fragments (containing millions of galaxies) hurl through space. Initiating a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, isometric, homogeneous base that will permeate and immerse all matter and define the magnitude of the local universe with volume inflation. What are fundamental particles? Fundamental particles in essences are tiny matter structure called “dark matter” comprised of two or more quantum thermal units. Dark Matter is one of the predominate substances in the local universe, we cannot see it, it is non-visual, but we can observe its effects and presence as inferred indirectly through motions of celestial objects, Fundamental particles (fmp) represent 45% of all the matter in the local universe. The fundamental particles (fmp- and fmp+ comprise about 30 to 40% of all the DM) 95% are fmp- and the remaining 5% are fmp+. Neutral particles comprise about 60 to 70% of the dark matter. These percentages may change some what, as they are hypothetical. Why this disparity? The low percentage of positively charged fundamental particles provide effortless propagation. The remaining 95% non-conjugated negatively charged fmp cannot bind or form any macro matter. In some respects adopt a harmonic attitude, resting in an isometric, homogeneous fashion. How fmp- affect a black hole ? When dark matter is confronted with a periphery, as a mass with a coalescent influence that has achieved critical mass status and the dark matter is impuissant to permeate it than can be effortlessly coalesced. The Black Hole is now able to construct conditions to integrate all matter and form a region of space that has concentrated mass, as a result of the weight intensity and external dark matter pressure, objects cannot escape. The method used is quite ingenious. Harboring a powerful coalescent influence the B.H. captures the surrounding fmp* or dark matter. Thus the black hole embarks to draw on the lattice and all the galaxies and lesser matter integrated within. As the lattice is drawn in, all that is immersed in the dark matter e. g. planets, stars and galaxies are slowly accreted. With this continuous accretion eventually the black hole acquires astronomical dimensions. The maturity of this celestial giant is totally dependent on this non-visual dark matter. Should for any reason a rupture occur in the lattice, the external pressure and accretion will diminish and the result, instability and a critical mass breach followed with a BIG BANG. Can we detect dark matters that harbor such minuscule matter structure? I believe the plausible region to detect or observe dark matter (fundamental particles) is in the haze shrouding black holes, teeming and under pressure of opposing forces, one dark matter and two the critical mass of a black hole. Constrained by the lattice formation and having close to zero motion this (rest mass) has few options. Dark matter confined in continuously more crowded quarters will influence thermal conditions, and initiate a haze enveloping a black hole. The theory of everything. To understand the universe we must basically split the fundamental particle down to its fundamental building blocks. We might arrive at potential energy or the irreducible quantum heat unit. The term “fundamental particle” is used here to avoid having to invent new terminology. The term Quantum thermal unit* = potential rest energy (pre) = quantum heat units Dark energy What is potential rest energy? That is the stuff between the stuff we can not see. A description of potential rest energy; – - It is extensively neutral, and almost {no motion, no spin}, non interactive, non binding, contiguous, shapeless, long lasting and at half the thermal value or less of the fundamental particles (Dark Matter) In Astronomy, as in all sciences, one can detect an object in one of two ways: either by observing it directly, or observing the effect that it exerts on more visible bodies. The existence of potential rest energy (PRE) is almost undetectable because they harbor such incredibly tiny energy unit structure. Potential rest energy is a hypothetical generic term though not visible to our technology their presence is inferred by their influence on visible celestial bodies in the cosmos. There is a growing consensus in the astronomical community that most of the energy in the our universe is in the form of dark energy that I refer to as (potential rest energy) A more compelling argument for (PRE), Let us hypothesize, why not saturate the entire universe with PRE. and construct a single fluid medium. It is only logical to assume that the universe was created from a very few varying quantum thermal unit values. The evidence from observations of the universe point to everything as being influenced by thermal information. At this point in time cosmologists don’t know what PRE is. With understanding the movements of celestial objects, great strides can be taken in the comprehension of the universe. The nature of PRE and its abundance, are crucial questions in modern cosmology. Since an insignificant percentage of all matter is visible, it is therefore logical to assume the possibility that these nonvisual constituents will determine the type of universe and how it performs. Potential rest energy and dark matter ubiquitous and very efficacious, what fundamental synergy do they posit? The deeper we delve the more intriguing we find this hypothesis of complexity wrapped in simplicity. This potential rest energy is found not only in space but contiguous with macro and dark matter in every facet of thermal interaction. Why such an abundance of these two ingredients in “the local universe”? One player in possessions of 52% of the total energy and the second about 45 % + as dark matter. This begs a question; Why are the galaxies not falling in on themselves? In order to proceed from this point can we posit bouyancy of all macro matter as a theory and assume that the universe is a quiescent fluid. This assumption that little conduction of energy and almost no viscosity maybe questionable on small scales but taken as a unit, the universe under observations behaves very much like a quiescent fluid. This causative agent is emerging as key factor to revive the “cosmological constant theory”. The existence of potential rest energy as a dominant basic constituent of the “greater universe” revives Einstien’s discarded hunch of the “cosmological constant”, maybe not exactly as he envisioned. Nevertheless this mysterious force is welcome news, it is highly improbable that a local universe will expand and turn us into dark matter nor will it collapse and crush us but possiible. This energy force assures us that omega one and the 3 D shapeless Greater Universe is equal. With the emergence of potential rest energy a draft guesstimate of the universal total volume of these three constituents (pre +dm +macro m) = (omega) to determine its size now is a possibility. I assume without proof that the universe is the same volume now as it was x trillion years ago, as being self-evident. What would be a logical cause that follows physics for expansion or loss of volume if energy can not be destroyed or created? The conjecture that the universe is infinite would postulate the genesis of matter as a hypothetical, potential generating thermal value units would be spread far too sparse to coalesce. not a viable option. Potential rest energy is the first order (in value?), more stable and long lasting than dark matter particles. As a first magnitude in size they are unable to accrete or transmit thermal information and this inability renders them ineffectual to expansion or contraction. I would prefer to call them potential rest energy,I extrapolate their existence as quiescent,almost zero motion and these contiguous constituents fill all space and permeate all matter. With domination of 67 % of energy in the Greater Universe may posit a thought. Is expansion or contraction possible with (32 % of dark + 1 % macro matter of the local universe) as active constituents of a Greater Uninverse?. Can the rearrangement of matter structures be absorbed into a cosmological constant of the Greater Universe? As humbling as it may sound these expansion theories may be regarded as regional phenomenons, as we observe regional generation and atrophy of galactic cycles. We may not even have ventured outside of our sector which commands at least 15 to 20 billion light years omni – directional. What does that say about our sector are we the new kid in the neighbourhood? Light like sound or water for propagation of motion needs a medium to transfers thermal information (energy) from the source. Potential rest energy being the first order of magnitude in size and unable to accrete thermal information this inability to transmit information renders them ineffectual. This may limit our ability to view light from our sector of the Greater Universe only. The fact that parts of the universe do display expansion does not proclaim that the universe can not be static. Dark Matter What is dark matter? dark matter is the stuff between the things we see. In Astronomy, as in all sciences, one can detect an object in one of two ways: either by observing it directly, or observing the effect that it exerts on more visible bodies. The existence of these fundamental particles maybe undetectable as they harbor such minuscule matter structure. Dark matter is a generic term for these fundamental particles in the local universe. Despite the fact they are not visible to our technology, their presence is inferred by their influence on the more visible celestial bodies. Their exact form maybe controversial but they do emit and accrete thermal information omni- directional and when favorable conditions present themselves they will illuminate. There is a consensus in the astronomical community that most of the mass in the our galaxy and of most galaxies, is in the form of dark matter. Let us posit a more compelling argument for dark matter: Let us assume as a hypothesis and permeate the entire mass structure including the whole of the local universe all inclusive with fundamental particles, and create a contiguous information transference medium. It is only logical to assume that the greater universe was created from a very few value varying quantum thermal units. As the evidence from observations of the universe point to everything as being influenced by thermal information. At this point in time cosmologist are dubious as what dark matter is. With understanding the movements of celestial objects, great strides have been taken in the comprehension of our local universe. The nature of dark matter and its abundance, are crucial questions in modern cosmology. Since an insignificant percentage of all matter is visible, it is therefore logical to embrace the possibility that this non – visual dark matter determines the type of local universe and how it performs. We may speculate as to what percentage of the local Universe is dark matter, whether galaxies and all macro matter contribute 1% or 10% the fact is 90 to 99% still remains dark matter and potential rest energy as quantum heat units. Dark matter is a combination of two varying fundamental particle flavors, a negatively charged particle and a neutral particle. In order for neutral particles to exhibit thermal (gravitational) influence they must possess mass. To be instrumental in the construction of plasma, neutral particles must rest in an adjacent formation. Sequentially vast quantities of contactual neutral particles are needed to simply fill the volume and implement a route for universal thermal transference. The second is a negatively charged particle (fmp-) ingeniously choreographing an isometric, homogenous three-dimensional geometrical lattice, These fundamental negative particles immersed in a neutral plasma assist in the creation of a thermal transference medium and restrain separation by avulsion of celestial objects throughout the local universe. This assemblage of particles immersed in these plasmas represents 100% of all matter in the local universe. One % seems more likely to represent the propagated macro matter occupying the greater universe. How can we detect dark matter? I believe the plausible region to detect and observe dark matter (fundamental particles) is in the haze enveloping black holes, here teeming between opposing forces, dark matter impuissant to permeate the critical mass. Constrained by their lattice and plasma formations and having close to zero motion this rest mass has limited options. Dark matter finding itself condensed to more than a normal comfort zone, this higher concentration of baryionic and dark matter will influence higher thermal conditions and initiate a haze around the black hole (as stated in the 1st law of motion). The haze should be brighter around mature black holes, as all thermal information is confined locally in the lattice to its periphery. The periphery will be determined by the rip in the dark matter (fmp- & fmpn). We may extrapolate that the enveloping dark matter density and unbalanced forces will determine (as stated by the 2nd law of thermodynamics) the thermal values surrounding black holes. Here we may encounter one or more problems– 1– Mature black holes should be totally invisible, isolated by a global moat of potential rest energy. Caused by a rip in the lattice. 2– Thermal information (light) is torpid and can not be transmitted to earth through a “void, vacuum or PRE”. To postulate, without dark matter as a transfer medium light can not be visible from the source. This phenomenon a lattice and plasma will construct sectors as independent areas bearing celestial objects as bubbles in the greater universe. (details Big Bang) Each resembling a small universe within a larger universe. IF one could view these bubbles, from a perspective point, one would perceive these sectors of the greater universe as floating buoyant bubbles throughout a fish bowl full of water. Black Hole Big Bang or Inflationary theory The origins of a black hole. There are good reasons to think why vast areas of super concentrated baryon matter exist. While not being subject to their physical existence of certainty, we can by rationality present a philosophical foundation for science and evolutionary trends, as proof by logic and reasoned pursuit of the senses. Black hole friend or foe? Black holes is a misleading catchphrase for these enterprising celestial paragons found in “minor universes”. Though branded as space behemoths methodically sucking sectors dry, these black holes of destruction may not be so bad after all. Perhaps these elusive cosmic entities will add credence to the theory that massive black holes are intricately related in the creation and evolution of minor universes, galaxies, stars, planets and all the lesser baryon matter. Black holes are high interest players in the composition of “minor universes”and their continued existence, by regenerating multitudinous sectors in continuum. Therefore prevent a high probability of creating any one major crunch and recycle at lower magnitudes, thermal information with lesser “big bangs”. There are various reasons and not surprising why we receive so little or no thermal transmissions from these elusive entities. 1— A Black Hole is enveloped while celestial bodies are permeated by the dark matter and potential rest energy. 2– Mature black holes should be totally invisible, isolated by a global moat of Potential rest energy (PRE*). 3– Coalescing and agglomerating, emptying space of both dark matter and the celestial objects within, leaving only quantum heat units (PRE), therefore rendering thermal transfer impossible. 4 —Thermal information (e.g.light) is torpid, and can not be transmitted to earth through the “PRE”. I declare without proof, lack or void of dark matter as a transfer medium, light will not be visible from its source. How are Black Holes constructed? Spinning stars or galaxies permeated and emersed in dark matter and PRE fields or matrixes establish a whirl – like motion, unlike a black hole these whirlpools do not initiate a central coalescing influence to the DM including the orbiting baryon matter. When dark matter is confronted with a periphery, a mass with a coalescent influence. that has achieved critical mass status and the dark matter impuissant to permeate this high density mass, at this state fundamental particles are effortlessly coalesced. The Black Hole is now able to construct conditions to integrate the fmp along wirh the more complex matter, and create an expanding region of space as a concentrated mass. As a result of weight intensity and dark matter pressure, objects cannot pull away. The method used is quite simple. A spinning black hole being a high density mass can NOT be permeated, it likewise establishes a whirl – like motion WITH central coalescing influence, both to dark matter and all the orbiting galaxies, stars, planets and lesser baryon matter. Harboring a super critical mass structure the B.H. assumes the role of host to all the surrounding fmp* and macro mass, while excluding the PRE. The FMP- is in the form of a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice that pervades the entire sector. The fmpn (neutral) is in a form of a plasma that pervades the entire sector, that presently is not occupied fmp- or fmp+, in concert fmp- and fmpn permeate the minor universe all inclusive. The natural state of fmp is to permeate all matter and the local universe all inclusive (Black Hole is excluded), this creates an equilibrium and / or buoyancy to the local universe and all celestial bodies within. Dark matter reacts differently when faced with a critical mass, the fmp can not penetrate this mass. The cause and effect results as a push pressure (we interpret as gravity) onto the mass surface. Fundamental particles on contact with the B.H. surface are transfixed by dark matter pressure and transfer the task to the next set of fmp, only to experience the same fate. As more and more dark matter is coalesced it gradually draws in the planets, stars and galaxies. If for any reason, the lattice was to rupture, coalescence would endure a deathly blow, and limit the process of gathering matter to form a more massive B.H. As long as internal pressure is in equilibrium with external pressure or internal pressure is less, the Black Hole will continue to coalesce. Once internal pressure exceeds external pressure, destabilization and critical mass breach will commence. To create a Black Hole by accreting these minuscule particles, one particle adjacent to the next is a labor of patience. Dark matter pressure collocate, agglomerates and concentrates this mass (dark and baryon matter). With each new addition is an increase in volume. The mass exerts extreme pressure to the specific particles, as a result of this successve pressure the specific units eventually alter their shape, consequentially evict all the Potential Rest Energy units (PRE is the stuff between between specific particles). It is the specific particles and dark matter that are creating this celestial critical mass phenomenon, a sequence that continues for billions of years*. (Time not as a dimension but as expressing a repetitive sequence of events). Throughout this evolution, stars, galaxies are bit by bit drawn / pushed by dark matter to the black hole. Since dark matter represents 33% (+ -) of all matter in a local universe, it is logical to assume the black hole is in possession of an enormous fmp force, countered by an external pressure of equal value. If for some reason the fmp- lattice and fmpn plasma are severed: Gradually matter around the black hole will deplete and expend it’s external pressure. This can lead to but one conclusion, the pressure from without spent, critical breach and an unstable black hole is imminent. What caused a Black Hole to fragment and not atomize? I believe critical mass and a strong coalescent influence orchestrates this foundation , condensing matter under extreme weight intensity compress the fundamental particles so tight as to altered their shape, evict any PRE (the stuff between the particles), condense and form a super critical mass. Although fundamental particles are primordial elements and will not break down, still they can not refuse the intense pressure and must adopt a polygon of forces, a new spherical form. These veins I am about to introduce are not visual, only exist as particle content. I propose this is the baryon matter now fmp-, fmp+, fmpn (neutral) 3 flavors truly homogenous matter to the eye. I realize for a human to travel to a high density stars such as black holes, descend on a cross section to observe these vast areas is impossible for a number of reasons. But as friut of the mind, here we are, upon closer observation we detect the plain to be non homogeneous. We notice countless marble like trails the archaeological remains of once, planets, stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies, now mere spots sprinkled throughout this surface. Massive layers of fmp- and neutral plasma. dwarfing the total baryonic matter content now sprinkled as minor trails forming a marble like effect throughout the Black Hole. Reasons why these veins exist are — 2 – With the vast distances between celestial bodies and the high ratio dark matter verses baryon matter, dark matter will be the prominent mass structure. This high ratio dark matter verses baryon matter allows DM the opportunity to blanket each macro mass as it is coalesced. Patiently these celestial bodies produce the vein effect throughout the black hole structure. These varying flavored veins eventually will form the fault lines in the Black Hole’s construction. With pressure spent from external sources, these veins now under extreme conditions will cause the black hole to fracture. The first break will stem where the greatest pressure is concentrated, producing the largest primary fragments. Each next generation explosion will be fractions and they inturn will fragmentize at their weakest links. The fact that galaxies are receding*, in all directions is a consequence of these initial explosions. and supports the theory that fragmentation, was the initial matter structure of our “local universe”. Thermal expansion with super high temperature of each fragment was achieved in the final stage of fragmentation as critical mass was breached. Is a Black Hole. hot or cold? With the introduction of these various thermal values, dark matter (low) and celestial objects (some very high) describes the state of this system. Dark matter being 28% to 32% of cold matter and macro matter 1% to 5% hot the overall temperature will be low. Within the criticle mass the motion of particles assume a rest mass state and are transformed to potential energy with all PRE expelled. The internal energy might be thought of as the tendency for all matter in the black hole to evolve toward a state of inert uniformity, or potential matter at rest.,br> At this present state the 2nd law of thermodynamics has met its Waterloo. Equilibrium can not be achieved, what we have are fundamental varying values. Does this leave with perpetual motion? Question in my Mind? What is weight? In space is one cubic inch of black hole matter heavier than one cubic inch of a star or cubic inch of air? Why do they not fall? fmp* = fundamental particles (The term “fundamental particle” is used here to avoid having to invent new terminology) PRE* = Potential rest energy = Quantum thermal units = Quantum heat units. Time = Something perceived by our senses. Critical* = high density held in check by dark matter pressure Central coalescence* = drawing to the centre BIG BANG Big Bang or Inflationary theory Imagine a local universe as a constituent of a “greater universe” a closed system, its internal function intrinsically is thermal administration. Science has shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a beginning. In reference to the Big Bang, this theory additionally posits reasonable effort to explain what happens to any minor universe at its origin. Essentially a Big Bang is inflationary but the greater universe did not originate with a big bang. The Many Bang theory exhibits a regeneration and distribution of matter in all minor universes as constituents of the greater universe, precisely what we should expect from continuous “big bang” eruptions. If one could view from a perspective point the greater universe, it would appear effervescent in relation as to what we observer as a chaotic existence. Each big bang eruption is responsible for numerous fragments, soon after super inflation. these hot masses will eventually form future planets, stars, galaxies, clusters and all the lesser matter. Each time a big bang occurs, matter fragments are cast out omni-directional. Over time* fresh black holes are created, re-coalesce the fundamental particles,planets,stars, galaxies, the result of this course, a new Big Bang. Essentially when we refer to big bangs, we are referring to eruptions in a local universe a sector of a Greater Universe. The inflation theory states basically, all of the matter in this particular sector was already present, and attempts to explain, how and what drove this sector into a period of chaos and hasty expansion. This hypothesis extrapolates that the Big Bang can not be the origin of the greater universe but that black holes are one cause for perpetual contraction and expansion in “minor universes”. The big bang undergoes a number of stages, immediately after critical mass is breached. The black hole fractures into a number of large fragments, casting them randomly omni-directional. The second phase breach repeats this process, each chunk fragmenting, casting smaller fragments every whichway. This is repeated numerous times, eventually coalescent influence is sufficiently weakened, exploding these fragments, unleashing enormous thermal expansion and releasing what once were stars, galaxies and clusters of galaxies. At that moment this “local sector” is chaos, confusion, fundamental particles and super high temperatures. What kept these fragments in a critical state? A thick outer crust of negative and neutral fmp envelop each critical mass fragment. This crust empowers these fragments the opportunity to penetrate deeper into space before they super inflate. We should note the gigantic sizes of these fragments, each containing many millions of galaxies. Some of these fragments may range a light year in diameter. With each additional stage lesser fragments and weaker external pressure will influence the final state. With dark matter pressure weakening, fundamental particles are now able to discharge and permeate space. Laying a foundation for a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice and plasma while simultaneously producing a time delay effect, allowing these fragments to hurl deeper into the greater universe. With the gradual release of dark matter pressure the critical mass coalescent influence sufficiently weakened, they will explode, again casting lesser fragments every whichway. This process is repeated until all the critical mass (potential baryonic matter) that is trapped within these fragments reach their final stage. With coalescent influence almost exhausted, internal pressure now exceeding external pressure, only now can the potential baryon constituents within initiates thermal superinflation. Expanding to galactic proportions converting the mass into an enormous amount of thermal energy in microseconds*. But not before these fragments were cast at speeds beyond my description, seeding space with countless galactic thermal clusters. Confusion, fundamental particles and chaos reigns. Time* = something we perceive through our senses, UNIVERSAL EXPANSION What is Expansion ? A General Theory of Relativity should predict that a local universe is not static, as observations confirm this, indicating that it is expanding. It must be remembered that the Big Bang represent the creation of a minor universe. This event marking a beginning suggests, the minor universe must have been much smaller at its inception. The Big Bang should be pictured as a big explosion somewhere in space with fragments being cast out omni directional from an exploding mass, known as the Big Bang, This does not mean that the galaxies and lesser objects are flying out into space infinitum, the fact is, relatively very few bodies do, eventually galaxies lose all velocity. As temperatures decrease, planets, stars, galaxies evolve and acquire spin, orbit and adopt a buoyancy state, as matter at rest. What it does suggest is, matter in space is becoming dispersed, diffused, spread out and in so doing, it increases fundamental particle content in space and the distance between celestial bodies. How does this effect man? We are living in the most intriguing time, in a universe like nothing we imagined just a few short years ago. A hypothetical such as, is man expanding or contracting by some mysterious force were curiosities of fiction. Living organisms are not noticeably subject to this phenomenon of universal expansion; the dark matter (DM) permeating our body is of higher thermal value in comparison to DM in space.(ok so!). Our planet is continuously and simultaneously supplied and depleted of thermal energy, contraction will effect matter of the higher thermal content first and translate as a decrease in fmp* structure (diameter) and specific* particle content. Here we may apply the Second Law of Thermodynamics. This law claims that “Energy spontaneously tends to flow only from being concentrated in one place to becoming diffused or dispersed and spread out”. As long as our planet compensates our thermal value, we will not feel any noticeable effect , and dark matter will absorb energy from the higher thermal emitting matter (E.g. galaxies, stars, earth etc.). When considering universal expansion we can only observe what we can see. Suppose we observe the stars in the outlying universe, and suppose we observe idiosyncratic mannerism of everyday matter, can we structure common inherent properties. Assuming the universe, galaxies and all the matter on earth are permeated * by dark matter particles, can these idiosyncratic phenomenon in possession of these structural and behavioral characteristics apply a logical postulate? There is a consensus in the astronomical community that most of the mass in most galaxies is non-luminous dark matter and those celestial objects in space and matter on earth are analogous. I refer here to Dark matter as a generic term for these fundamental particles in the universe though not directly observable, they do permeate all matter and fill all space with their presence as inferred by the motion of galaxies. Dark Matter particles absorb contiguously and omni – directional thermal information from higher energy sources (e.g.stars). Hypothetically one may extrapolate an increase in thermal content will increase the structure of the fundamental particles (DM) likewise increase the content of specific particles in the region and interpret this as increase in the local universal volume. If this assumption is valid than our Sun’s thermal information (energy) lose, should express a constant increase to earth’s orbit. fmp * = fundamental particles (The term “fundamental particle” is used here to avoid having to invent new terminology) permeate* = 1 The fmp- form a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, isometric, homogeneous, permeate and immerse all matter and assist to define the magnitude of the universe with their volume inflation. Permeate* = 2 The neutral fmp is instrumental in the construction of a plasma; neutral particles must rest in an adjacent formation. Sequentially vast quantities of contactual neutral particles are needed to simply fill the volume and implement a route for universal thermal transference. Specific particles* form baryon matter. Gravity Fish swim in water; birds fly in air, why can’t celestial objects float in plasma? Does symmetry affect gravity? The emphasis on the interaction and understanding thermodynamic functions of a system becomes indispensable as thermodynamics continually uncovers particles with lesser mass value. When dealing with fundamental particles a hypothetical approach must be applied to emphasize the interaction between particles in modern physics. Such particles can only be observed by their influence on celestial objects, galactic systems and by reasoned pursuit of our senses. Thermodynamics for example, must apply hypotheticals to deal with the measurements of minuscule elements, as our modern technology simply can not deal physically with these non – detectable particles. What is Symmetry? One definition of symmetry might be: Preserving a distance of elements at given points in space. This hypothesis of symmetry has led to deeper understandings of fundamental particles, inspite of absence of physical evidence to the extent of certainty, and by rationality we may present a philosophical foundation for science, as proof by logic and by reasoned pursuit of the senses. Under closer observation logical postulates should infer that symmetry may exhibit variations between fundamental particles and not be as homogenous as we may have generally believed. Symmetry infers given a set of points, each fundamental element or particle has its own point in the universe and describes symmetries in the construction of matter, matrixes or force fields. Gravity here is a term used to identify thermal transfer, a force that exerts contiguous* influence between particles throughout the entire structure or local universe. In order for particles to exhibit (gravitational) influence they must possess matter and in order to be instrumental in the construction of thermal transfer (gravity), must rest adjacent. Sequentially vast quantities of contactual neutral particles are needed to simply fill the volume and implement a route for thermal influence. This isometric homogenous assemblage of particles (fmp-, fmpn (neutral) and potential rest energy*) can present an illusion of a string theory as some theorists have hypothesized. In reality it is the transfer of thermal information that effectuate these links. Negative fmps are minuscule matter structures with a thermal charge or flavor. Ingeniously they choreograph an isometric, homogenous three-dimensional geometrical lattice and each particle occupying a tiny segment of the “local universe”. Synoptically set up in a geometric formation from which they can not diverge. Each fmp- and fmpn can contiguously impose a CONSTANT and WEAK thermal (gravitational) influence throughout the entire local universe via this dark matter. Upon closer observation we will find, there are two types of mass in motion. 1: Independent motion. To postulate an independent celestial mass with motion does experience drag from dark matter in the local universe. This drag does create a reduction in mass velocity, as stated in the Second Law of Motion. Any accelerating mass as determined by second law of motion would meet with increased resistance from dark matter to any continuing increase in speed. To postulate that mass possesses thermal (gravitational) influence that is hardly hypothetical. What has been missing is the notion of a medium to branch local universal unit motion and drag, which together can describe with immediacy–gravity, inertia, and their identical nature. 2 : Is the most prominent class which include galaxies, stars, planets, these are predominantly static buoyant bodies. We may likewise assume that buoyant, spinning celestial mass does experience ( minor) drag from dark matter in the local universe, while maintaining a uniform motion. A drag does cause a reduction in orbital progress of the mass, as stated in the First Law of Motion. With little drag the DM and the mass will remain relatively in uniform motion, Both DM and mass moving conjointly as a unit, mass will bifurcate from its orbital path at varying velocities. With an inherent tendency for fmp in the universe to evolve toward a state of inert uniformity following logic, the 2nd law of thermodynamics at this state is in refute. As the first law of quantum thermal unit rearrangement states: No two quantum thermal units can share the same point in space. To thoroughly digest the” quantum thermal unit rearrangement” concept, we should start with a proposition. What is the mechanism to explain this function and extrapolate a quantum thermal unit rearrangement theory? Like sound or water for QTUR propagation, a contactual contiguous fluid like medium to fill the total volume is required. Sequentially vast quantities of quantum units are needed to simply fill this space. Let us posit a novel argument for general behavior and causation of these basic constituents. These varying values of PRE influenced by the 2nd law of thermodynamics eventually form baryon particles and advance to more and more complex matter but do not increase their unit value nor do they increase the volume of the greater universe (1*). These new binding particles simply displace PRE units and resultantly claim that space (2*). These new particles now in possession of thermal transfer, initiate motion by thermal transference but the number and overall volume of the PRE units remains a constant. What we are witnessing is a local coalescence of binding particles or formation of baryon matter. An increase of quantities of specific units in an expanding* local region only. Hypothetically we may extrapolate; each one cubic inch of space will contain (+ – *) the equal number of pre unit. Like wise each cubic inch of dark matter, inconsequential as to the type of baryon matter will contain the (+ -) the same number of PRE units. Dark matter in possession of these essential fundamental interactions (e.g.gravity or thermal transfer) as stated in the second law of thermodynamics will exert limits to regional (e. g. local universe) expansion and contractions by thermal interactions. To hypothesize that gravity is a transference phenomenon , hence these particles must possess the ability to transmit information contiguously uninterrupted throughout the lattice via the plasma. (Except in PRE* pockets) where near zero transference will occur. Establishing the entire volume of the local universe with a gravitational influence to the periphery. My hypothetical proposal is that gravity (plasma) is the enthalpy that introduces thermodynamic transference capabilities to the fundamental particles. The fundamental significance of these three basic elements, positive, negative and neutral on their own are quiescent, but! To hypothesize, positive immersed in neutral plasma will configure a positively charged fmp, now in possession of thermal transfer capabilities. A negative immersed in neutral plasma will configure a negatively charged fmp in possession of thermal transfer capabilities. Immersing (fmp+and fmp-) in a neutral plasma, a new element is configured that precipitates aspirations to propagate. This significant new element introduced (fmp+fmp-and fmpn) now is in possession of thermal, (gravity) and coalesences capabilities (first baryon particle). The gravitational transference in its essences is a derivation of life. If so these alpha particles are fmp positive, fmp negative, and fmp neutral are three varying flavors. GRAVITY is a thermodynamic transference requirement of an internal energy system to function. The administration of the thermal energy is called gravity. Contiguous* meaning gravitational influence is transferred from one particle directly to an adjacent fundamental particle. PRE* potential rest energy = quantum heat units = quantum thermal units. Gravity* is hypothetical a term referred which is thought to exist and represents the conventional theories to an essential cause (or source) of gravity. (1*) —- By “do not increase their unit value” is a reference to, they continuously retain the same size (volume) and thermal value. (2*) —- By “particles simply displace PRE units and resultantly claim that space”.—-. Meaning the coalescence of binding particles obey the laws of QTUR, that states no two quantum units can share the same point in space.The 2nd law of thermodynamics achieves the coalescence of two or more quantum thermal units (pre), they themselves do not contain any smaller components Each pre unit continues to retain a constant value as a more complex composition is being constructed..The total value of the complex composition is the sum of the total number of pre units and their total respective values. Binding units (a composition of two or more pre) expel any non binding PRE units and claim their points in space. Those expelled and unable to accrete thermal information simply claim the space left vacant by the prior occupants. Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the science that deals with temperature interaction between all particles and an introduction to variables that describes the state of a system governing the basic principles of temperature ,entropy and enthalpy. In adopting the macro point of views we assume the system will transfers down to the micro level and lower still to the fundamental particle state and beyond. Following the natural laws of physics, value can be assigned without visual knowledge of these particles; their presence can be measured by pressure, temperature or by observing the effect that they exert on more visible objects. Heat and energy are two magnitudes of the same physical thermal nature a spectrum of thermal motion. The varying degrees of probabilities in this entropical spectrum represent also human life as a frequency range of this thermal spectrum of motion. We can extrapolate that thermodynamics in general activates every phase of particle, biological and human experience. The first law of thermodynamics is a straight forward law of physics in a “closed system”. In order to proceed from this point can we assume as a theory that the universe is a quiescent fluid. This assumption that little conduction of energy and almost no viscosity maybe questionable on small scales but taken as a unit, the universe under observations behaves very much like a quiescent fluid. If Potential rest energy is the first order in value, and as a first magnitude in size they are unable to accrete thermal information and this inablity to transmit information renders them ineffectual to expansion or contraction and (pre) will impose a periphery. This thermal influence may create a temporary closed system on this sector and the matter it may harbor. What would be a logical cause that follows physics for expansion or loss of volume if energy cannot be destroyed or created? The conjecture that the universe is infinite would postulate the genesis of matter and a closed universe as a hypothetical, potential generating thermal value units would be spread far too sparse to coalesce. An infinite universal system is not a viable option. The term “one” as the total “universe”, postulates that you can perform any real physical process and remain with as much energy as you had to start with “in the closed system”. This implies perpetual motion is possible. The second law asserts energy is transferred from higher thermal system to a lower thermal system to achieve equilibrium. If we recognize these as sectors of the “one” the quantity of energy remains with zero loss. The thermodynamics of a b.h. is to create an enthalpic environment the equivalent to the sum of the internal energy of the system in equilibrium with the total product of its volume and a homogenous temperature. A function unobtainable by the pressure exerted on the black hole by macro and dark matter. The introduction of these various temperatures dark matter (cold) and celestial objects (some very hot) describes the state of this system. Dark matter being 33% of cold matter and macro matter 1% hot the overall temperature will be low. Within the critical mass the motion of particles become a rest mass and conservation of energy is at a very high degree of efficiency. The internal energy might be thought of as the tendency for all matter and energy in the black hole to evolve toward a state of inert uniformity, or potential energy. The haze (Cold+Hot matter = K?) surrounding BH implies that thermal value does impose internal stress amidst potential energy and the continued restraint on forces binding this mass. Natural origin of life Intro to life The mere fact that consciousness exists, we can create and continually evolve consciously for the good of others is astounding. Not surpassing that our definition “what is life” is subjective, prejudicial and not aspiring to objectivity? To observe the Homo sapiens curiosity and aspirational goals shackles our task to tackle this question. We need to understand the natural sources of energy and what forms of energy are involved in life processes. To define life, a solution to this problem requires knowing something about our ancestor’s characteristics. We can safely infer all varieties of life appear to have a common factor, or common ancestry. One readily apparent commonality is, all living things consist of similar organic compounds. This pool of common compounds binds us to a common ancestral history. How do molecules communicate? This theory has very significant implications to create living organisms from inorganic materials, It follows logic to suppose that out of the simple particles, a fundamental theory, which unifies and interrelates all matter that possess information transfer capabilities. We know present day life depends to a large extend on, e.g. sugars oxygen and solar energy. If molecule requirements are to assume the concept, that information transfer is a condition for life, this infers all particles in possession of info. transference, thermodynamics and gravity meet the required conditions If life consists of fundamental matter, it stands to reason that origin of life may essentially originate in a thermodynamic fundamental state for nonorganics Can information transfer occur in dark matter in a thermodynamic state? Since all matter possess characteristics of information transfer, defining life type depends on the energy transfer rate These fmp the most basic of matter must also follow the laws of physics. These fmp- form a three dimensional geometrical lattice immersed in a graviton plasma and inhabit the entire cosmos, constructing a constant and reliable transit avenue, capable of info transference and allowing molecules to transmit information intercell. The close proximity to each other and their size makes them ideal to assist in building more complex molecules, and the most advanced intelligence. When did life begin Some scientist believe that life was introduced to earth by comets, meteorites, space dust, all this is possible, but really this is beside the point. Life in basic or more complex form must be a very common commodity. If we assume that information transfer is common, this implies that life exists throughout the universe. If information transference is a basic component of matter, the most primitive basic life must be a mechanism for more complex building blocks. The conditions will determine the complexity of molecule development and determine the degree of information transference. When particles bind information transfer is communicated to the recipient and confirmation is acknowledged The message can be simple in basic particles, more complex in higher forms, e.g. amino acids and more advanced molecules capable to replicate, or pools of molecules (e.g. humans). Molecules and man, which comprise of living cells, individually obey the laws of chemistry, physics, laws of thermodynamics and governing the relationships between different degrees of energy. These laws of physics apply to the whole universe. If Cairns-Smith is correct, creating primitive evolving physical systems may be fantastically simple – and indeed is forming continuously all around us A logical assumption infers that all commodities have a function, in a chain like phenomenon in the cosmos puzzle. My question is What is the aim of black holes? Are they necessary? They surely must be, they have survived and exist. The black hole accretes all matter, concentrates fundamental particles, and may precipitate conditions favorable for thermodynamic propagation. Our universe is constantly changing; this process would be unnecessary if matter or energy could not be created. Life is not created by random rather the type of life is dictated by thermodynamic conditions and defined, as matter which uses energy flowing through a system, resulting in increasing and developing complex replicating communicational transfer matter. Logically we should assume that the theory of communication transfer has existed since the day the charge was introduced to matter. To me communicational transference appears to possess characteristics relating to gravity. The complexity of molecules depends completely on conditions of thermodynamics. It seems the more complex the molecule is, the more energy it consumes to sustain its existence. Clearly our life system is codependent on external energy source, e.g. earth, sun and dark matter. Can physics predict whether life phenomenon can be reduced to a fundamental matter theory? If so considerable success can be achieved in understanding the structure and organization of stellar systems in terms of gravitational forces, non-living matter in terms of electromagnetic forces, and thermodynamics in terms of information transference. All matter answers to the same laws of physics. When matter at different temperatures are allowed to integrate, a physical change in their composition occurs. With favorable conditions a new rearrangement of particles can appear (regarding to B.H.) index LIGHT The Nature of Light The origins of light has captured the imagination of many scientists since the inception of hypotheticals, as to what is the mechanism to explain the function and extrapolate a theory of light. It has been established that light transfers thermal information (energy) from the source. Light like sound or water for propagation of motion, needs a medium. Light is a thermodynamic function with internal interactions of emission, accretion and exerts energy units (quantum units) on this medium (dark matter) Assertions postulated that light characteristics are corpuscular or waves, ignore the possibility that the nature of light may be a contactual transfer phenomenon of thermal information. Argumentation initiates some theories as questionable, as they are void of a medium to transmit thermal information. This is where the concept of fmp (fundamental particles or dark matter) affirms a viable medium. Dark matter is a combination of two fundamental particles a negatively charged particle and a neutral particle (graviton) To be instrumental in the construction of plasma, graviton* particles must rest in an adjacent formation. Sequentially vast quantities of contactual neutral particles are needed to simply fill the volume (the cosmos) and implement a route for universal thermal information transference. For now I will refer to this interaction as palpitation indicating actual momentary disturbance in the medium. Emersed in this plasma (Dark Matter) is a concept of contiguous fundamental particles that transfers thermal information (light) contactually, implementing an omni – directional emissionary and an accretionary interaction. The theory of light dispersing is logical; it provides an interaction of the spectrum with omni – directional dispersed light and various thermodynamic values. If we can accept this as a logical hypothesis than dark matter is this medium. We should question this phenomenon; can thermal information survive in a vacuum or a PRE plasma*? How can a photon maintain energy levels in a hostile PRE environment? Starving for energy. The speed of light (frequency) is directly influenced by the value of the mass particles or varying thermal values applied to (varying mediums of varying values) will result in varying speeds. Light speed is finite for two reasons– 1– dark matter resistance will impose limits to transfer speed as Einstein predicted even though he was not aware of dark matter in this format. 2– second reason is thermal information accretion rate will impose limits aswell. 3– in a matterless space a (true vacuum) light will not survive. The rate of transfer (emission and accretion) in a medium is the velocity of thermal information transfer from one fmp to an adjacent fmp omni – directionally. To achieve light speed very little particle movment occurs only the contactual contiguous interaction of thermal information transference It may very well be that contiguous thermal transfer and fmp values produce conditions for said speed of light. The term “Light” in the common sense, is referred to as a is a limited portion of the spectrum, sensed by the human eye. Dark Matter particles absorb thermal information from the source and when this DM interacts with a medium of a higher thermal particle density content, this triggers illumination (fmp are indestructible to the temperatures of celestial bodies). Actions that propagate the speed of light is thermal information transferred omni – directional in the lattice. Absolute constant speed of light may not be intrinsic, as space would require homogenized omni – directional medium of matter. Will not happen. Light transfers thermal information contactually in an omni – directional emissionary and accretionary thermal interaction. This omni – directional process is emersed in a contiguous fmp plasma. ——————————————————————————– fmp * = fundamental particles (The term “fundamental particle” is used here to avoid having to invent new terminology) graviton*=The term is used here to avoid having to invent new terminology PRE * potential rest energy more on “dark matter” ——————————————————————————– created by Sam Sade, samsade@rogers.com last modified: june 10, 2003 index Shape of the Universe What is the Shape of the Universe? The shape of the universe can only be inferred from observation and theory. It is (logical?) to assume the universe is a 3 dimensional shapeless entity and we somewhere inside. The consensus of the astronomical community is that our local universe’s current radius is 14+ billion light years omni-directional. No matter what direction we gaze at, we see more or less the same density of galaxies. Implying that our sector of the universe may consist of a contiguous medium and as a (closed system?). Gaze out in any direction of the sky, and you get very similar microwave temperature readings. To extrapolate a theory from these constant thermal readings may imply curvature and apparently a need for a periphery. Suggesting that our sector of the universe structure is finite. What can be the mechanism to explain this function? Argumentation initiates many theories as questionable, as they are void of a medium to transmit thermal information. This is where the concept of dark matter and potential rest energy are perfect mediums to transmit and diffuse thermal information omni-directionaly and affirm viable mediums from where thermal information emanates. The universe is comprised of these constituents or flavors (fmp-, gravitons, macro matter and potential rest energy) 1 — the fundamental negative particles (fmp-) form a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, isometric, homogeneous, permeate and immerse all matter and assist to define the magnitude of the universe with their volume inflation. Negatively charged fmp can not bind*, have no motion and rest as close as determined by their negative charge. 2—-the neutral (graviton) is instrumental in the construction of plasma, graviton particles must rest in an adjacent formation. Sequentially vast quantities of contactual neutral particles are needed to simply fill the volume and implement a route for universal thermal transference. Dark matter absorbs thermal energy from the macro mass e,g, earth, stars, galaxies etc. This thermal energy effects the content and /or expands fundamental particles effecting the amount of space occupied. The macro matter works in reverse it emits thermal energy and its volume decreases. Despite the fact that a local universal is expanding in this regard the Greater Universe remains static, as for macro matter (comets, stars galaxies etc) these have varying reasons for motion. Hypothetically matter or as energy this content in the Greater Universe is a constant and in possession of sufficient matter and the 3 dimensional shapeless universe will not increase or decrease in volume. Sectors in the universe continually collapse form black holes and inturn superinflate To define critical density, all macro matter and dark matter must revert to potential rest energy and achieve (almost?) thermal equilibrium. Except that….. Black holes are high interest players in the design of a local universe’s continued existence by regenerating various sectors in continuum. These elusive cosmic entities add credence to the theory that massive black holes are intricately related to the creation and evolution of galaxies. Black holes are constructed by conditions to integrate all matter and form a region of space that has concentrated mass They guard against high probabilities of any one major crunch, continually replenishing new thermal information with continuous smaller bangs. This phenomenon ensures that regional universes maintains 3 dimensional (1s and 2o)* shape I am averse to a flat universe, these theories present us with physical difficulties. Evidence around us suggests to the contrary, everything we visibly see tends to endorse a closed system. ——————————————————————————– Dimensions* —–1s = one sphere and 2o = two ovals Bind *—-Dark matter comprises of three alpha particles, a positive, negative and neutral. These fundamental particles represent 33% of all the matter in the universe. Macro matter comprises about 1 to 5% of the total macro matter in the cosmos the remaining 95 to 99% is referred to as dark matter. Fmp- and fmp+ comprise about 30 to 40% of the dark matter. These are divided again about 95% fmp- and the remaining 5% are fmp+. Why this disparity? With so few positively charged FM particles, this provides effortless propagation. The remaining nonconjugated negatively charged fmp cannot bind, have no motion and rest as close as determined by their negative charge. Their objective now is to form a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, isometric, homogeneous, permeate and immerse all matter and with the aid of (graviton) plasma, define the magnitude of the universe with their volume inflation. index Does Earth have Headway Momentum ? ——————————————————————————– Copyright & copy; 2003 by Sam Sade, all rights reserved. This text may be freely redistributed among individuals in any medium so long as it remains unedited and appears with this notice Any commercial or republication requires the written permission of the author. ——————————————————————————– Our solar system presents us a wondrous adventure into the unfolding secrets of a star, its planets, comets, asteroids, planetesimals, meteors, dark matter and potential rest energy, as an oasis of motion. It is understood from the standpoint of our observations that no object in the universe is at rest. Every object is in a state of motion. The question is what is the functioning agent that initiates an object a process for changing a position in space? Motion in the universe is comprehensively interrelated through an internet of quantum thermal units (PRE *) and fundamental particle fields.* Objects with independent momentum are those that the First law of motion applies too. “Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it”. (Newton) What is this force? Hypothetically let us consider this unconfirmed force consists of three constituents: One is potential rest energy the basic constituent that pervades the “greater universe” or the entire space. While #2 and #3 are more complex constituents added to our local universe (a sector of the greater universe) e.g. for this exercise, let’s use our solar system. #2- Is a fundamental negative particle a constituent of dark matter that forms a 3 dimensional geometrical lattice, isometric, homogeneous, that permeates and immerses all matter #3 -Is a neutral or graviton particle also a constituent of dark matter that permeates, immerses all matter and is instrumental in the construction of a plasma. These graviton particles must rest in an adjacent formation. Sequentially vast quantities of contactual neutral particles are needed to simply fill the volume and implement a route for thermal transference. Why are orbits elliptical? A rotating orbital star emersed in “potential rest energy” and “dark matter” establishes elliptical fields entrapping all orbiting planets, comets, asteroids, meteors, planetesimals and including all space dust. One force is a mild PRE* field and a second sharing conjointly this matrix is a more dynamic DM field. Their rotation inconcert influence the fields to adopt a whirl-like motion, unlike a whirlpool it does not initiate a central coalescence to the whirling or orbiting matter. I believe the planets permeated and emersed in these plasmas are static buoyant bodies in elliptical whirl pool matrixes. Following logic we may assume a rotating planet immersed in PRE & DM fields will likewise establish a whirl pool and initiate local drag. In general planets do not possess forward momentum but rather express a static state. We may extrapolate that the interaction by the two fields (the sun’s and the planet’s) will retard the planet’s orbital flow and impart the impression of independent motion. In reality due to varying mass and local drag values, the planets project only an illusion of headway momentum. Our earth is not motionless; it commands one major independent motion, a spin as it orbits the sun (excluding minor motions) The earth’s spin propagates a divergent whirl pool in its matrixes and the consequence is resistance and or pressure on the solar MATRIXES* that in turn creates a drag to earth’s matrix* fields, imposing the minor axis to elongate and form elliptical fields. I believe the causative varying thermal values to dark matter locate the apogee of the semi – major axis facing the sun and perigee facing away This may beg a question; Our Sun as a member of the Milky Way is considerably the most dominant whirl pool in our solar system. Commands at least one motion as it spins and orbits around the Milky Way. Assuming the Sun does NOT command independent headway momentum, hence we may extrapolate the same laws that govern the orbits of planets around the Sun, must also govern the motion of stars. As the Sun orbits’, its solar matrixes** exert pressure onto the “galactic” MATRIX* fields, the consequential result once again is resistance and or pressure to the solar matrixes** with the “minor axis” forming elliptical fields to the solar matrixes**. While the Sun’s apogee of the semi – major axis will maintain facing the galactic center (or the higher thermal value) as the Sun advances in its orbit around the Milky Way. Assuming these same laws that govern the orbits of planets around the Sun also must govern the motion of stars. Based on this hypothesis, we may extrapolate the Sun to be buoyant and static is logical. The Sun must adopt the galactic orbit. To postulate that a planet commands orbital independent headway motion implies the planet’s speed is variable as it continuously orbits the sun. We than may presume in the process of its orbital progress it will encounter the need at least once to increase velocity as it tries to catch up to the sun’s orbit. This hypothesis is stressing logic and begs for a myriad of gravitational and mathematical inferences The origin of some of our (if not all) planets might be fragments hurling through space with just enough velocity to enter the sun’s elliptical QTU fields and not sufficient enough energy to escape and are captured in this eccentrically elliptical field The fragments crashing into the sun may extrapolate any number of theories as to the origins of ” planets and other matter”. If a fragment with sufficient velocity can pass through the elliptical QTU field it will continue into space never to return. (Never is not an infallible term but close) New Theory on Dark Matter By Rohit Sharma ABSTRACT Dark matter, proposed decades ago as a speculative component of the universe, is now known to be the vital ingredient in the cosmos, eight times more abundant than ordinary matter, one quarter of the total energy density and the component which has controlled the growth of structure in the universe. Its nature remains a mystery, but, assuming it is comprised of weakly interacting sub-atomic particles, is consistent with large scale cosmic structure. However, recent analyses of structure on galactic and sub-galactic scales have suggested discrepancies and stimulated numerous alternative proposals. We discuss how studies of the density, demography, history and environment of smaller scale structures may distinguish among these possibilities and shed new light on the nature of dark matter. The last decade, has seen the emergence of a standard model, sometimes called a “concordance model” (1) to emphasize that its predictions are in concord with current observations – both of the nearby universe and of the early universe as seen in the cosmic background radiation (“CBR”). The new CBR results (2) recently published by the team of scientists analyzing the observations of the WMAP satellite are generally assessed as providing a brilliant and comprehensive verification of the concordance model. But consistency or concordance is not scientific proof. The model works. And, many previously proposed models are now known to be wrong in essential elements. Most of the current work in cosmology is focused on pinning down the adjustable parameters in the concordance model to see how precisely we can specify that model and whether any discrepancies will appear as this process is advanced. History, however, is a stern teacher. We know that all physical models for natural phenomena represent approximations to the truth. The blinding light that seems – for the moment – to be illuminating our path is certain to expose stubborn facts that will cause us to modify and extend the current paradigm. First, according to the standard model, there is ordinary matter consisting of the familiar chemical elements. Nuclear cooking that occurred in the first few minutes after the big bang left a soup containing primarily hydrogen and helium and other light elements. Recent measurements of chemical abundances are consistent with theoretical predictions (3) – provided the mass density of ordinary matter is about 4% of the total energy density of the universe and from WMAP we now know that this estimate is accurate. But, we also know from various gravitational effects that the total mass density is much more than 4% of the total energy density. Over 65 years ago the Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky (4) noticed that the speed of galaxies in large clusters, such as the Coma cluster, is much too great to keep them gravitationally bound together unless they weigh over one hundred times more than one would estimate based on the number of stars in the cluster. Decades of investigation confirmed his analysis, and in the 1970s further evidence for dark matter It was found from gravitational studies of matter in the outer parts (the halos) of ordinary nearby galaxies (5, 6, 7, 8). By the 1980’s, the evidence for dark matter with an abundance of about 20% of the total energy density was widely accepted, although the nature of the dark matter remained a mystery. After the introduction of inflationary theory or the very early universe by Guth (9), many theoretical cosmologists became convinced that the universe must be flat and that the total energy density must equal the value (termed the critical value) that distinguishes a positively curved, closed universe from a negatively curved, open universe. Furthermore, noting how the evidence for dark matter was growing and extrapolating from the previous decade of study, the theoretical cosmologists became attracted to the beguiling simplicity of a universe in which virtually all of the energy density consists of some form of matter, roughly 4% being the ordinary matter and 96% the dark matter. In fact, observational studies were never compliant to this vision. Although there was a wide dispersion in total mass density estimates, there never developed any convincing evidence that there was sufficient matter to reach the critical value. The discrepancy between observation and the favored theoretical model became increasingly sharp. Finally, dark energy came to the rescue (10). The only thing dark energy has in common with dark matter is that both components neither emit nor absorb light. In all other respects, they are different. Microphysically, they are composed of different constituents. Most significantly, dark matter, like ordinary matter, is gravitationally self-attractive and clusters with ordinary matter to form galaxies. Dark energy is gravitationally self-repulsive and remains nearly uniformly spread throughout the universe. Hence, a census of the energy contained in all the galaxies would miss almost all of the dark energy. So, by positing the existence of a dark energy component, it became possible to account for the 70-80% discrepancy between the measured mass density and the critical energy density predicted by inflation (11, 12, 13, 14). But the dark energy dominated models make a strong prediction – that the universe is currently accelerating, due to the gravitational self-repulsion of the dominant dark energy component. This ran contrary to the then-current best observational tests based on the brightness of distant supernovae. Then, two independent groups (15, 16) found evidence of the acceleration from observations of supernovae, and the model with a dominant dark energy component became the concordance model of cosmology. Dark energy has changed our view of the role of dark matter in the universe and our vocabulary for describing the cosmological possibilities. If this paper had been written a decade ago, before any serious consideration of dark energy, the focus would have been on the mass density. According to Einstein’s general theory of relativity, in a universe composed only of matter (particles and radiation), it is the mass density that determines the geometry, the past history and the future evolution of the universe. For example, if the mass density exceeds the critical value, the self-gravity of the matter would cause the current expansion to eventually halt and reverse and, also, space would be positively curved. If the mass density is right at the critical value, space is flat (Euclidean) and the universe expands forever. Hence, the structure and fate of the universe would rest on the value of the ordinary plus dark matter 2density. With the addition of a new component, the story is totally different. First, what determines the geometry of the universe is whether the total energy density equals the critical value, where now we add to the mass contribution (identifying its energy according to E=mc2 2) the dark energy contribution. Second, the period of matter domination has given way to dark energy domination. So, the important cosmological role of dark matter is in the past when it was the dominant contribution to the energy density, roughly the first few billion years. Our future is determined by the nature of the dark energy, which is sufficient to cause the current expansion of the universe to accelerate, and the acceleration will continue unless the dark energy should decay or change its equation of state. Figure 1. The luminous (light-emitting) components of the universe only comprise about 0.4% of the total energy. The remaining components are dark. Of those, roughly 3.6% are identified: cold gas and dust, neutrinos, and black holes. About 23% is dark matter, and the overwhelming majority is some type of gravitationally self-repulsive dark energy. We have neglected one very important sub-plot up to this point – dark matter as the agent producing the growth of cosmic structure. We would not exist today were it not for the dark matter, which played a crucial role in the formation of the present structure in the universe. Without dark matter, the universe would have remained too uniform to form the galaxies, stars and planets. The universe, while nearly homogeneous and isotropic on its largest scales, shows a bewildering variety of structures on smaller scales: stars, galaxies, clusters of galaxies, voids and great walls of galaxies have been found. The only known force capable of moving matter on such large scales is Newton’s gravity. And since, in a smooth and uniform medium, there will be no irregularities to produce gravitational forces, all structures must have been seeded by small fluctuations imprinted on the universe at very early times. These fluctuations should leave a signature on the CBR radiation left over from the big bang. Ordinary matter could not produce fluctuations to create any significant structures without leaving a signal bigger than what was observed in the CBR, because it remains tightly coupled to radiation, preventing it from clustering, until recent epochs. 3) On the other hand, dark matter, which is not coupled to photons, would permit tiny fluctuations (consistent with the CBR observations) to grow for a long, long time before the ordinary matter decoupled from radiation. Then, the ordinary matter would be rapidly drawn to the dense clumps of dark matter and form the observed structure. There would still need to be initial fluctuations, but their amplitude could be substantially smaller than otherwise. In 1991, the COBE satellite team announced the successful detection of these fluctuations, confirming an entirely independent argument for the existence of dark matter. The required material was called Cold Dark Matter (CDM), since, in addition to its properties of invisibility and gravitational self-attraction, it was necessary for it to consist of non-relativistic particles to produce the observed structure and these, for simplicity, were assumed to contain no internal thermal motions, i.e., they were cold. A final important ingredient in the standard paradigm must be mentioned before we can begin to assess the validity of the picture. The initial spectrum of perturbations (ratio of long waves to short waves) must be specified in order to predict the gravitational effects of these waves. The inspired guess proposed independently by physicists Harrison, Peebles and Zeldovich in the 1970’s was that the initial density fluctuations were “scale-invariant.” That is, if we decompose the energy distribution into a sum of sinusoidal waves of varying wavelength, the wave amplitudes of the waves were the same for all wavelengths. One of the great triumphs of the inflationary scenario (17, 18, 19, 20, 21) is that it provided a well-motivated, dynamical mechanism for producing a nearly scale-invariant (defined by “spectral index”: n = 1) spectrum. This prediction has now been confirmed by the WMAP satellite team, which found n = 0.99 +- 0.04 (22). Hence, it seems that our observational data has now confirmed our basic hypotheses and provided detailed information about the amount of dark matter in the universe and the initial distribution of matter and energy. This provides a complete prescription for the conditions that lead to the growth of gravitational perturbations and the development of the universe to the state in which we now see it. It should be a matter of straightforward, if complex, computation to see if the developments predicted by this model agree with the universe as seen around us and also with its earlier phases as seen through the time machine made possible by powerful telescopes peering back into earlier epochs. But we cannot claim to understand the evolution of structure in the universe, if we do not know the nature of the dark matter and how it fits within our models of fundamental physics. But, there is more at stake than that. The mass, stability, and interactions of dark matter with itself and with ordinary matter will all affect how dark matter participates in the formation of structure in the universe. Two kinds of dark matter are already known, neutrinos and black holes, (23) but they are generally thought to be minor contributions. Although there are current favored candidates for the majority component, it is the precise nature of the dark matter that is currently the most uncertain and interesting issue. Here we explore these issues: the possible candidates, their implications for structure formation, and how we might use a combination of particle detectors and astronomical observations to resolve the nature of dark matter. 4) THE FAVORED CANDIDATES FOR DARK MATTER For over a decade, the favored candidates for dark matter have been hypothetical elementary particles that are long-lived, cold and collisionless. Long-lived means the lifetime must be comparable to or greater than the present age of the universe, about 14 billion years. Cold means that the particles are non-relativistic at the onset of the matter-dominated epoch so that they are immediately able to cluster gravitationally. Because clustering occurs on length scales smaller than the Hubble horizon (age of the universe multiplied by the speed of light) and the Hubble horizon was much smaller at matter domination than today, the first objects to form – clumps or halos of dark matter – were much tinier than the Milky Way and much less massive. As the universe expanded and the Hubble horizon grew, many of these first small halos merged to form larger scale structures, which later merged themselves to form yet larger scale structures. The result is a hierarchy of structure ranging over many orders of magnitude in volume and mass, in accordance qualitatively with what is observed. In contrast, hot relativistic particles, such as light, massive neutrinos, would be moving too fast at matter domination to gravitationally cluster, and would result in a dramatically different distribution of structure inconsistent with what is observed. Hence, it has been known for nearly 20 years that light neutrinos must be a negligible component of the dark matter mass density, a conclusion that has been recently supported by measurements of the neutrino mass in underground solar neutrino experiments. Collisionless means that the interaction cross-section between dark matter particles (and between dark matter and ordinary matter) is so small as to be negligible for densities found in dark matter halos. The particles are only gravitationally bound to one another and travel unimpeded in orbits in the halos with a broad spectrum of eccentricities. Cold, collionless dark matter has been favored for several reasons. First, numerical simulations of structure formation with cold, collisionless dark matter agree with most observations of structure. Second, for a special subclass known as WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles), there is a natural explanation for why they have the requisite abundance. If particles interact through the weak force, then they are in thermal equilibrium in the first trillionths of a second after the big bang, when the density and temperature are high, and, then, they fall out of equilibrium with a concentration that is simply predicted from their annihilation cross-section. For a weak force cross-section, the expected mass density today spans a range that includes 20-30% of the total energy density of the universe, as observed. A third reason for favoring cold, collisionless dark matter is that there are specific appealing candidates for the dark matter particles in models of fundamental physics. One candidate is the neutralino, a particle that arises in models with supersymmetry. Supersymmetry, a fundamental aspect of supergravity and superstring theories, requires a (yet unobserved) boson partner particle for every known fermion and a fermion partner particle for every known boson. If supersymmetry were extant today, the partners would have the same mass. But, because supersymmetry is spontaneously broken at high temperatures in the early universe, today the masses are different. Also, most supersymmetric partners are unstable and have decayed soon after the symmetry breaking. However, there is a lightest partner (with mass of order 100 GeV) that is prevented by its symmetries from decaying. In the simplest models, 5these particles are electrically neutral and weakly interacting – ideal candidates for WIMPs. If the dark matter consists of neutralinos, then large, sensitive underground detectors can detect their passage through the Earth as our planet travels around the Sun and through the dark matter in our own solar neighborhood. There are numerous efforts underway today that are beginning to explore the likely range of mass and cross-section of neutralinos. However, that detection does not necessarily mean that the dark matter consists primarily of WIMPs, which might quite possibly be, like neutrinos, only a small subcomponent of the dark matter. Another appealing candidate is the axion, a very light neutral particle (with mass of order 1 µeV) important in suppressing strong CP violation in unified theories. The axion interacts through such a tiny force that it is never in thermal equilibrium, so the explanation for its abundance is not as simple. It immediately forms a cold Bose condensate that permeates the universe. For the axion, also, detectors have been built and have been running for several years. The facts that cold, collisionless dark matter is simple to parameterize, results in numerical simulations which agree with most observations, and is motivated by particle physics explain why it is the leading candidate. But, the real test is just beginning, as vast improvements in numerical simulation and observations in recent years are leading to much more precise tests. CRACKS IN THE FOUNDATION Because the concordance model, combined with the assumption of cold, collisionless dark matter, is mathematically quite specific (even if some of the parameters that enter into it are known imprecisely), it can be tested at many different physical scales. The largest scales (thousands of megaparsecs (Mpc) – one parsec is 3.26 light-years, a kiloparsec (kpc) is one thousand parsecs and an Mpc is one million parsecs) are seen in the CBR itself. These measure the primordial distribution of energy and matter when their distribution was nearly uniform and there was no structure. Next come measurements of the large-scale structure seen in the distribution of galaxies ranging from several Mpc to nearly one thousand Mpc. Typically, these measurements span concentrations of dark matter ranging from small to intermediate. Over all of these scales, observation and theory are consistent inspiring great confidence in the overall picture. However, on smaller scales, from one Mpc down to the scale of galaxies, kpc, and below, there is confusion. Either the results of the tests are uncertain, or they indicate disagreement with the naïve expectations of the theory. These apparent disagreements began to surface several years ago (24, 25, 26) and no consensus has emerged as to whether or not they represent real problems. For the most part, theorists believe that, if there is a problem, it is much more likely to be due to our specific assumption about the nature of dark matter rather than a problem with the global picture given by the concordance model. That there should be more uncertainty about smaller objects that are relatively closer may seem puzzling at first. First, on large scales gravity is king, so an understanding of the predictions involves only very straightforward computations based on Newton’s and Einstein’s laws of 6gravity. On smaller scales, the complex hydrodynamical interactions of hot, dense matter must be included. Second, the fluctuations on large scales are very small (a few percent or less), and we have very accurate methods of computing such quantities. But, on the scales of galaxies, the physical interactions of ordinary matter and radiation are quite complex. Supercomputer simulations are required, but they are not yet entirely reliable or reproducible from one investigator to another. As the problems have emerged, there have been changes both in the observational domain and the claimed theoretical predictions, further complicating the situation. The principle purported problems found on smaller scales are as follows: 1) Substructure, small halos and galaxies orbiting within larger units, may not be as common as is expected on the basis of numerical simulations of cold collisionless dark matter: a) The number of halos expected varies roughly as the inverse of the mass, so many dwarf systems, similar to our companions, the Magellenic Clouds, should be found – far more than. b) The lensing effect of small halos should be evident from the distribution of brightnesses of multiple images of a given galaxy, but the current evidence is inconclusive. c) The small halos, spiraling into the Milky Way and other systems should puff up the thin discs of normal galaxies by more than is observed. 2) The density profile of dark matter halos should exhibit a “cuspy” core in which the density rises sharply as the distance from the center decreases, in contrast to the central regions of many observed self-gravitating systems: a) Clusters of galaxies, as observed in studies of gravitational lensing, have less cuspy cores than computed models of massive dark matter halos. b) Ordinary spiral galaxies, such as our own, have much less dark matter in their inner parts than expected (31, 32), as do some low surface brightness systems . c) Dwarf galaxies, like our companion systems, Sculptor and Draco have nearly uniform density cores in contrast to the expected cuspy density profile. d) Hydrodynamic simulations produce galaxy disks that are too small and have too little angular momentum compared to observations. e) Many high surface brightness spiral galaxies exhibit rotating bars, which are normally stable only if the core density is lower than predicted. Addressing these issues is complex, and we are still mired in uncertainty. With regard to it seems likely that the explanation for the relatively small number of faint galaxies lies in the physics of galaxy formation. The explanation is that halos having a central potential less than or comparable to the ionization energy of hydrogen will not be able to retain photo-ionized gas, and form stars. Hence, they are effectively invisible and would not be counted by observers. Current strong lensing estimates using the distribution brightness ratios of multiple images of a given galaxy to determine the amounts of small-scale structure orbiting a galaxy, are difficult to understand. On the other hand, seeming evidence for small halos been found; on the other hand, it suggests more small halos than expected. A reasonable 7conclusion is that the observed distribution of brightness ratios may be due to effects other than small halos. Item (1c) is even less easy to pin down; if the discs form late enough and the matter density is small enough, so that most infall occurs early, then the disruption and thickening of late forming galactic disks by infalling satellites is unimportant. In sum, the evidence with respect to amounts of substructure observed vs. expected cannot be used at this time to argue either for or against LCDM with much conviction. The second